This selection of lapidary nuggets drawn from thirty-three of antiquity’s major authors includes poetry, dialogue, philosophical writing, history, descriptive reporting, satire, and fiction--giving a glimpse at the wide range of arts and sciences, thought and styles, of Greco-Roman culture. The selections span twelve centuries, from Homer to Saint Jerome. The texts and translations are reproduced as they appear in Loeb volumes, offering a taste of the ideas characteristic of the splendid culture to which we are heir.

Apollonius Rhodius’ Argonautica, composed in the third century BCE, is an epic retelling of Jason’s quest for the golden fleece. It greatly influenced Roman authors such as Catullus, Virgil, and Ovid, and was imitated by Valerius Flaccus.

Appian (first–second century CE), a Greek from Antioch, offers a history of the rise of Rome but often shows us events from the point of view of the conquered peoples. Books on the Spanish, Hannibalic, Punic, Illyrian, Syrian, Mythridatic, and Civil wars are extant.

Appian (first–second century CE), a Greek from Antioch, offers a history of the rise of Rome but often shows us events from the point of view of the conquered peoples. Books on the Spanish, Hannibalic, Punic, Illyrian, Syrian, Mythridatic, and Civil wars are extant.

Appian (first–second century CE), a Greek from Antioch, offers a history of the rise of Rome but often shows us events from the point of view of the conquered peoples. Books on the Spanish, Hannibalic, Punic, Illyrian, Syrian, Mythridatic, and Civil wars are extant.

Appian (first–second century CE), a Greek from Antioch, offers a history of the rise of Rome but often shows us events from the point of view of the conquered peoples. Books on the Spanish, Hannibalic, Punic, Illyrian, Syrian, Mythridatic, and Civil wars are extant.

Catullus (84–54 BCE) couples consummate poetic artistry with intensity of feeling. Tibullus (c. 54–19 BCE) proclaims love for Delia and Nemesis in elegy. The beautiful verse of the Pervigilium Veneris (fourth century CE?) celebrates a spring festival in honour of the goddess of love.

In letters to his friend Atticus, Cicero (106–43 BCE) reveals himself as to no other of his correspondents except, perhaps, his brother, and vividly depicts a momentous period in Roman history, marked by the rise of Julius Caesar and the downfall of the Republic.

In letters to his friend Atticus, Cicero (106–43 BCE) reveals himself as to no other of his correspondents except, perhaps, his brother, and vividly depicts a momentous period in Roman history, marked by the rise of Julius Caesar and the downfall of the Republic.

Euripides (c. 485–406 BCE) has been prized in every age for his emotional and intellectual drama. Eighteen of his ninety or so plays survive complete, including Medea, Hippolytus, and Bacchae, one of the great masterpieces of the tragic genre. Fragments of his lost plays also survive.

Euripides (c. 485–406 BCE) has been prized in every age for his emotional and intellectual drama. Eighteen of his ninety or so plays survive complete, including Medea, Hippolytus, and Bacchae, one of the great masterpieces of the tragic genre. Fragments of his lost plays also survive.

Euripides (c. 485–406 BCE) has been prized in every age for his emotional and intellectual drama. Eighteen of his ninety or so plays survive complete, including Medea, Hippolytus, and Bacchae, one of the great masterpieces of the tragic genre. Fragments of his lost plays also survive.

Euripides (c. 485–406 BCE) has been prized in every age for his emotional and intellectual drama. Eighteen of his ninety or so plays survive complete, including Medea, Hippolytus, and Bacchae, one of the great masterpieces of the tragic genre. Fragments of his lost plays also survive.

The surviving works of the Roman Emperor Julian “the Apostate” (331 or 332–363 CE) include eight Orations; Misopogon (Beard-Hater), assailing the morals of the people of Antioch; more than eighty Letters; and fragments of Against the Galileans, written mainly to show that the Old Testament lacks evidence for the idea of Christianity.

Lucian (c. 120–190 CE), apprentice sculptor then travelling rhetorician, settled in Athens and developed an original brand of satire. Notable for the Attic purity and elegance of his Greek and for literary versatility, he is famous chiefly for the lively, cynical wit of the dialogues in which he satirizes human folly, superstition, and hypocrisy.

Petronius’s Satyricon, probably written between 54 and 68 CE, presents in lurid detail the disreputable adventures of Encolpius, including his attendance at Trimalchio’s wildly extravagant dinner party. The Apocolocyntosis (Pumpkinification), a satire on the death and apotheosis of the emperor Claudius, is attributed to Seneca (c. 4 BCE–54 CE).

In his Life of Apollonius, Philostratus (second to third century CE) portrays a first-century CE teacher, religious reformer, and perceived rival to Jesus. Apollonius’s letters, ancient reports about him, and a letter by Eusebius (fourth century CE) that is now central to the history of Philostratus’s work add to the portrait.

In his Life of Apollonius, Philostratus (second–third century CE) portrays a first-century CE teacher, religious reformer, and perceived rival to Jesus. Apollonius’s letters, ancient reports about him, and a letter by Eusebius (fourth century CE) that is now central to the history of Philostratus’s work add to the portrait.

The passionate and dramatic elegies of Propertius (c. 50–soon after 16 BCE) gained him a reputation as one of Rome’s finest love poets. He portrays the uneven course of his love affair with Cynthia and also tells us much about the society of his time, then in later poems turns to the legends of ancient Rome.

In The Fall of Troy, Quintus Smyrnaeus (fourth century CE?) seeks to continue in Homer’s style the tale of Troy from the point at which the Iliad closes. Quintus’s fourteen-book epic poem includes the death of Achilles and the making of the Wooden Horse. It ends with the great storm that by the wrath of heaven shattered the departing Achaean fleet.

Sophocles (497/6–406 BCE), considered one of the world’s greatest poets, forged tragedy from the heroic excess of myth and legend. Seven complete plays are extant, including Oedipus Tyrannus, Ajax, Antigone, and Philoctetes. Among many fragments that also survive is a substantial portion of the satyr drama The Searchers.

Sophocles (497/6–406 BCE), considered one of the world’s greatest poets, forged tragedy from the heroic excess of myth and legend. Seven complete plays are extant, including Oedipus Tyrannus, Ajax, Antigone, and Philoctetes. Among many fragments that also survive is a substantial portion of the satyr drama The Searchers.

The six plays by Terence (died 159 BCE), all extant, imaginatively reformulate Greek New Comedy in realistic scenes and refined Latin. They include Phormio, a comedy of intrigue and trickery; The Brothers, which explores parental education of sons; and The Eunuch, which presents the most sympathetically drawn courtesan in Roman comedy.

The six plays by Terence (died 159 BCE), all extant, imaginatively reformulate Greek New Comedy in realistic scenes and refined Latin. They include Phormio, a comedy of intrigue and trickery; The Brothers, which explores parental education of sons; and The Eunuch, which presents the most sympathetically drawn courtesan in Roman comedy.

The writings of the Apostolic Fathers (first and second centuries CE) give a rich and diverse picture of Christian life and thought in the period immediately after New Testament times. Some were accorded almost Scriptural authority in the early Church.

The writings of the Apostolic Fathers (first and second centuries CE) give a rich and diverse picture of Christian life and thought in the period immediately after New Testament times. Some were accorded almost Scriptural authority in the early Church.

In the Confessions Augustine (354–430 CE) offers his great autobiography.

In the Confessions Augustine (354–430 CE) offers his great autobiography.

Theocritus (third century BCE) was the founder of bucolic poetry. The extant poems of Moschus (second century BCE) and Bion (probably second and first centuries BCE) are not really bucolic, but Bion’s Lament for Adonis is floridly brilliant. Pattern poems are found in the Greek Anthology, a work of many centuries.

The surviving works of the Roman Emperor Julian “the Apostate” (331 or 332–363 CE) include eight Orations; Misopogon (Beard-Hater), assailing the morals of the people of Antioch; more than eighty Letters; and fragments of Against the Galileans, written mainly to show that the Old Testament lacks evidence for the idea of Christianity.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

Enriched by anecdotes, gossip, and details of character and personal appearance, Lives of the Caesars by Suetonius (born c. 70 CE) is a valuable and colorful source of information about the first twelve Roman emperors, Roman imperial politics, and Roman imperial society. Part of Suetonius’s Lives of Illustrious Men (of letters) also survives.

Dio Cassius (Cassius Dio), c. 150–235 CE, was born in Bithynia. Little of his Roman History survives, but missing portions are partly supplied from elsewhere and there are many excerpts. Dio’s work is a vital source for the last years of the Roman republic and the first four Roman emperors.

The poetry of Horace (born 65 BCE) is richly varied, its focus moving between public and private concerns, urban and rural settings, Stoic and Epicurean thought. His Odes cover a wide range of moods and topics. Love and political concerns are frequent themes of the Epodes.

Barlaam and Ioasaph, a hagiographic novel in which an Indian prince becomes aware of the world’s miseries and is converted to Christianity by a monk, is a Christianized version of the legend of the Buddha. Though often attributed to John Damascene (c. 676–749 CE), it was probably translated from Georgian into Greek in the eleventh century CE.

Tacitus (c. 55–c. 120 CE), renowned for concision and psychology, is paramount as a historian of the early Roman empire. Agricola includes Agricola’s career in Britain. Germania is a description of German tribes as known to the Romans. Dialogus concerns the decline of oratory and education.

The great Athenian philosopher Plato was born in 427 BCE and lived to be eighty. Acknowledged masterpieces among his works are the Symposium, which explores love in its many aspects, from physical desire to pursuit of the beautiful and the good, and the Republic, which concerns righteousness and also treats education, gender, society, and slavery.

Dio Cassius (Cassius Dio), c. 150–235 CE, was born in Bithynia. Little of his Roman History survives, but missing portions are partly supplied from elsewhere and there are many excerpts. Dio’s work is a vital source for the last years of the Roman republic and the first four Roman emperors.

Enriched by anecdotes, gossip, and details of character and personal appearance, Lives of the Caesars by Suetonius (born c. 70 CE) is a valuable and colorful source of information about the first twelve Roman emperors, Roman imperial politics, and Roman imperial society. Part of Suetonius’s Lives of Illustrious Men (of letters) also survives.

In his Gallic War and Civil Wars Caesar (100–44 BCE) provided vigorous, direct, clear, third-personal, and largely unemotional records of his own campaigns.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

In Heroides, Ovid (43 BCE–17CE) allows legendary women to narrate their memories and express their emotions in verse letters to absent husbands and lovers. Ovid’s Amores are three books of elegies ostensibly about the poet’s love affair with his mistress Corinna.

In his most influential work, the Metamorphoses, Ovid (43 BCE–17 CE) weaves a hexametric whole from a huge range of myths, which are connected by the theme of change and ingeniously linked as the narrative proceeds from earliest creation to transformation in Ovid’s own time.

In his most influential work, the Metamorphoses, Ovid (43 BCE–17 CE) weaves a hexametric whole from a huge range of myths, which are connected by the theme of change and ingeniously linked as the narrative proceeds from earliest creation to transformation in Ovid’s own time.

The Metamorphoses (The Golden Ass) of Apuleius (born c. 125 CE) is a romance combining realism and magic. Lucius wants the sensations of a bird, but by pharmaceutical accident becomes an ass. The bulk of the novel recounts his adventures as an animal, but Lucius also recounts many stories he overhears, including that of Cupid and Psyche.

Leucippe and Clitophon, written in the second century CE, is exceptional among the ancient romances in being a first-person narrative: the adventures of the young couple are recounted by the hero himself. Achilles Tatius’s style is notable for descriptive detail and for his engaging digressions.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His forty-six Parallel Lives are biographies planned to be ethical examples in pairs, one Greek figure and one similar Roman, though the last four lives are single. They not only record careers and illustrious deeds but also offer rounded portraits of statesmen, orators, and military leaders.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His forty-six Parallel Lives are biographies planned to be ethical examples in pairs, one Greek figure and one similar Roman, though the last four lives are single. They not only record careers and illustrious deeds but also offer rounded portraits of statesmen, orators, and military leaders.

History of the Wars by the Byzantine historian Procopius (late fifth century to after 558 CE) consists largely of sixth century CE military history, with much information about peoples, places, and special events. Powerful description complements careful narration. Procopius is just to the empire’s enemies and boldly criticises emperor Justinian.

In his seventeen-book Geography, Strabo (c. 64 BCE–c. 25 CE) discusses geographical method, stresses the value of geography, and draws attention to the physical, political, and historical details of separate countries. Geography is a vital source for ancient geography and informative about ancient geographers.

In his seventeen-book Geography, Strabo (c. 64 BCE–c. 25 CE) discusses geographical method, stresses the value of geography, and draws attention to the physical, political, and historical details of separate countries. Geography is a vital source for ancient geography and informative about ancient geographers.

Cyropaedia, by Xenophon (c. 430–c. 354 BCE), is a historical romance on the education of the sixth century BCE Persian king Cyrus the Elder that reflects Xenophon’s ideas about rulers and government.

Cyropaedia, by Xenophon (c. 430–c. 354 BCE), is a historical romance on the education of the sixth century BCE Persian king Cyrus the Elder that reflects Xenophon’s ideas about rulers and government.

Dio Cassius (Cassius Dio), c. 150–235 CE, was born in Bithynia. Little of his Roman History survives, but missing portions are partly supplied from elsewhere and there are many excerpts. Dio’s work is a vital source for the last years of the Roman republic and the first four Roman emperors.

Lucian (c. 120–190 CE), apprentice sculptor then travelling rhetorician, settled in Athens and developed an original brand of satire. Notable for the Attic purity and elegance of his Greek and for literary versatility, he is famous chiefly for the lively, cynical wit of the dialogues in which he satirizes human folly, superstition, and hypocrisy.

The letters of Pliny the Younger (c. 61–c. 112 CE), a polished social document of his times, include descriptions of the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE and the earliest pagan accounts of Christians. The Panegyricus is an expanded, published version of Pliny’s oration of thanks to the Emperor Trajan in 100 CE.

Pindar (c. 518–438 BCE), highly esteemed as lyric poet by the ancients, commemorates in complex verse the achievements of athletes and powerful rulers at the four great Panhellenic festivals—the Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games—against a backdrop of divine favor, human failure, heroic legend, and aristocratic Greek ethos.

The two extant poems of Hesiod (eighth or seventh century BCE) are Theogony, in which he charts the history of the divine world, and Works and Days, in which he delivers moral precepts and practical advice for the world of men.

Marcus Aurelius (121–180 CE), philosopher-emperor, wrote the Meditations (his title was The matters addressed to himself) in periods of solitude during military campaigns. His ethical, religious, and existential reflections have endured as an expression of Stoicism, a text for students of that philosophy, and a guide to the moral life.

The letters of Pliny the Younger (c. 61–c. 112 CE), a polished social document of his times, include descriptions of the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE and the earliest pagan accounts of Christians. The Panegyricus is an expanded, published version of Pliny’s oration of thanks to the Emperor Trajan in 100 CE.

The comedies of Plautus, who brilliantly adapted Greek plays for Roman audiences c. 205–184 BCE, are the earliest Latin works to survive complete and cornerstones of the European theatrical tradition from Shakespeare and Molière to modern times. Twenty-one of his plays are extant.

The comedies of Plautus, who brilliantly adapted Greek plays for Roman audiences c. 205–184 BCE, are the earliest Latin works to survive complete and cornerstones of the European theatrical tradition from Shakespeare and Molière to modern times. Twenty-one of his plays are extant.

Seneca (c. 4–65 CE) authored verse tragedies that strongly influenced Shakespeare and other Renaissance dramatists. Plots are based on myth, in keeping with classical tradition, but themes reflect imperial Roman politics. Powerful rhetoric conveys intensity and the perspective is much bleaker than in Seneca’s prose writings.

Virgil (70–19 BCE) was a poet of immense virtuosity and influence. His Eclogues deal with bucolic life and love, his Georgics with tillage, trees, cattle, and bees. His Aeneid is an epic on the theme of Rome’s origins. Poems of the Appendix Vergiliana are traditionally, but in most cases probably wrongly, attributed to Virgil.

Virgil (70–19 BCE) was a poet of immense virtuosity and influence. His Eclogues deal with bucolic life and love, his Georgics with tillage, trees, cattle, and bees. His Aeneid is an epic on the theme of Rome’s origins. Poems of the Appendix Vergiliana are traditionally, but in most cases probably wrongly, attributed to Virgil.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His forty-six Parallel Lives are biographies planned to be ethical examples in pairs, one Greek figure and one similar Roman, though the last four lives are single. They not only record careers and illustrious deeds but also offer rounded portraits of statesmen, orators, and military leaders.

Dio Cassius (Cassius Dio), c. 150–235 CE, was born in Bithynia. Little of his Roman History survives, but missing portions are partly supplied from elsewhere and there are many excerpts. Dio’s work is a vital source for the last years of the Roman republic and the first four Roman emperors.

The Greek Anthology (Gathering of Flowers) is the name given to a collection over many centuries of about 4500 short Greek poems (called epigrams but usually not epigrammatic) by about 300 composers. Meleager of Gadara (first century BCE), an outstanding contributor, also assembled the Stephanus (Garland), a compilation fundamental to the Anthology.

The Greek Anthology (Gathering of Flowers) is the name given to a collection over many centuries of about 4500 short Greek poems (called epigrams but usually not epigrammatic) by about 300 composers. Meleager of Gadara (first century BCE), an outstanding contributor, also assembled the Stephanus (Garland), a compilation fundamental to the Anthology.

Longus’s Daphnis and Chloe (second or early third century CE), in which an idealized pastoral environment provides the setting as a boy and girl discover their sexuality, is one of the great works of world literature. Xenophon’s Anthia and Habrocomes (first century CE) is perhaps the earliest extant novel.

Enquiry into Plants and De Causis Plantarum by Theophrastus (c. 370–c. 285 BCE) are a counterpart to Aristotle’s zoological work and the most important botanical work of antiquity now extant. In the former, Theophrastus classifies and describes. His On Odours and Weather Signs are minor treatises.

Galen (129–199 CE) crystallized all the best work of the Greek medical schools which had preceded his own time, including Hippocrates’ foundational work six hundred years earlier. It is in the form of Galenism that Greek medicine was transmitted to later ages.

In his Gallic War and Civil Wars Caesar (100–44 BCE) provided vigorous, direct, clear, third-personal, and largely unemotional records of his own campaigns.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

The classical and Christian worlds meet in Boethius (c. 480–524 CE), the last writer of purely literary Latin from antiquity. His Tractates examine the Trinity and incarnation in Aristotelian terms. His Consolation of Philosophy, a dialogue between himself and Philosophy, is theistic in tone but draws on Greek, especially Neoplatonist, sources.

In 124 epistles Seneca (c. 4–65 CE) writes to Lucilius, occasionally about technical problems of philosophy, but more often in a relaxed style about moral and ethical questions, relating them to personal experiences. He thus presents a Stoic philosopher’s thoughts about the good life in a contemporary context.

In 124 epistles Seneca (c. 4–65 CE) writes to Lucilius, occasionally about technical problems of philosophy, but more often in a relaxed style about moral and ethical questions, relating them to personal experiences. He thus presents a Stoic philosopher’s thoughts about the good life in a contemporary context.

In 124 epistles Seneca (c. 4–65 CE) writes to Lucilius, occasionally about technical problems of philosophy, but more often in a relaxed style about moral and ethical questions, relating them to personal experiences. He thus presents a Stoic philosopher’s thoughts about the good life in a contemporary context.

Seneca (c. 4–65 CE) authored verse tragedies that strongly influenced Shakespeare and other Renaissance dramatists. Plots are based on myth, in keeping with classical tradition, but themes reflect imperial Roman politics. Powerful rhetoric conveys intensity and the perspective is much bleaker than in Seneca’s prose writings.

Enquiry into Plants and De Causis Plantarum by Theophrastus (c. 370–c. 285 BCE) are a counterpart to Aristotle’s zoological work and the most important botanical work of antiquity now extant. In the former, Theophrastus classifies and describes. His On Odours and Weather Signs are minor treatises.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His forty-six Parallel Lives are biographies planned to be ethical examples in pairs, one Greek figure and one similar Roman, though the last four lives are single. They not only record careers and illustrious deeds but also offer rounded portraits of statesmen, orators, and military leaders.

History of the Wars by the Byzantine historian Procopius (late fifth century to after 558 CE) consists largely of sixth century CE military history, with much information about peoples, places, and special events. Powerful description complements careful narration. Procopius is just to the empire’s enemies and boldly criticises emperor Justinian.

Dio Cassius (Cassius Dio), c. 150–235 CE, was born in Bithynia. Little of his Roman History survives, but missing portions are partly supplied from elsewhere and there are many excerpts. Dio’s work is a vital source for the last years of the Roman republic and the first four Roman emperors.

Dio Cassius (Cassius Dio), c. 150–235 CE, was born in Bithynia. Little of his Roman History survives, but missing portions are partly supplied from elsewhere and there are many excerpts. Dio’s work is a vital source for the last years of the Roman republic and the first four Roman emperors.

The Greek Anthology (Gathering of Flowers) is the name given to a collection over many centuries of about 4500 short Greek poems (called epigrams but usually not epigrammatic) by about 300 composers. Meleager of Gadara (first century BCE), an outstanding contributor, also assembled the Stephanus (Garland), a compilation fundamental to the Anthology.

The Greek Anthology (Gathering of Flowers) is the name given to a collection over many centuries of about 4500 short Greek poems (called epigrams but usually not epigrammatic) by about 300 composers. Meleager of Gadara (first century BCE), an outstanding contributor, also assembled the Stephanus (Garland), a compilation fundamental to the Anthology.

The Greek Anthology (Gathering of Flowers) is the name given to a collection over many centuries of about 4500 short Greek poems (called epigrams but usually not epigrammatic) by about 300 composers. Meleager of Gadara (first century BCE), an outstanding contributor, also assembled the Stephanus (Garland), a compilation fundamental to the Anthology.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His forty-six Parallel Lives are biographies planned to be ethical examples in pairs, one Greek figure and one similar Roman, though the last four lives are single. They not only record careers and illustrious deeds but also offer rounded portraits of statesmen, orators, and military leaders.

Hellenica by Xenophon (c. 430–c. 354 BCE) is a history of Greek affairs from 411–362 BCE that begins as a continuation of Thucydides’s account.

Hellenica by Xenophon (c. 430–c. 354 BCE) is a history of Greek affairs from 411–362 BCE that begins as a continuation of Thucydides’s account.

The Anabasis by Xenophon (c. 430–c. 354 BCE) is an eyewitness account of Greek mercenaries’ challenging “March Up-Country” from Babylon back to the coast of Asia Minor under Xenophon’s guidance in 401 BCE, after their leader Cyrus the Younger fell in a failed campaign against his brother.

Bite and wit characterize two seminal and stellar authors in the history of satirical writing, Persius (34–62 CE) and Juvenal (writing about sixty years later). The latter especially had a lasting influence on English writers of the Renaissance and succeeding centuries.

Born probably 150 CE in Athens, Clement was a key figure in early Christianity with wide knowledge of Greek literature and culture. His Exhortation to the Greeks to give up their gods and turn to Christ shows familiarity with the mystery cults. The Rich Man’s Salvation is a homily that offers a glimpse of Clement’s public teaching.

Pausanias (fl. 150 CE), one of the Roman world’s great travelers, sketches in Description of Greece the history, geography, landmarks, legends, and religious cults of all the important Greek cities. He shares his enthusiasm for great sites, describing them with care and an accuracy confirmed by comparison with monuments that still stand today.

In his epigrams, Martial (c. 40–c. 103 CE) is a keen, sharp-tongued observer of Roman scenes and events, including the new Colosseum, country life, a debauchee’s banquet, and the eruption of Vesuvius. His poems are sometimes obscene, in the tradition of the genre, sometimes affectionate or amusing, and always pointed.

In his epigrams, Martial (c. 40–c. 103 CE) is a keen, sharp-tongued observer of Roman scenes and events, including the new Colosseum, country life, a debauchee’s banquet, and the eruption of Vesuvius. His poems are sometimes obscene, in the tradition of the genre, sometimes affectionate or amusing, and always pointed.

The surviving works of Ausonius (c. 310–c. 395 CE) include much poetry, notably The Daily Round and The Moselle. There is also an address of thanks to Gratian for the consulship. The stated aim of Eucharisticus by Paulinus Pellaeus (376–after 459 CE) is to give thanks for the guidance of providence in its author’s life.

In letters to his friend Atticus, Cicero (106–43 BCE) reveals himself as to no other of his correspondents except, perhaps, his brother, and vividly depicts a momentous period in Roman history, marked by the rise of Julius Caesar and the downfall of the Republic.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His forty-six Parallel Lives are biographies planned to be ethical examples in pairs, one Greek figure and one similar Roman, though the last four lives are single. They not only record careers and illustrious deeds but also offer rounded portraits of statesmen, orators, and military leaders.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His forty-six Parallel Lives are biographies planned to be ethical examples in pairs, one Greek figure and one similar Roman, though the last four lives are single. They not only record careers and illustrious deeds but also offer rounded portraits of statesmen, orators, and military leaders.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His forty-six Parallel Lives are biographies planned to be ethical examples in pairs, one Greek figure and one similar Roman, though the last four lives are single. They not only record careers and illustrious deeds but also offer rounded portraits of statesmen, orators, and military leaders.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His forty-six Parallel Lives are biographies planned to be ethical examples in pairs, one Greek figure and one similar Roman, though the last four lives are single. They not only record careers and illustrious deeds but also offer rounded portraits of statesmen, orators, and military leaders.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His forty-six Parallel Lives are biographies planned to be ethical examples in pairs, one Greek figure and one similar Roman, though the last four lives are single. They not only record careers and illustrious deeds but also offer rounded portraits of statesmen, orators, and military leaders.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His forty-six Parallel Lives are biographies planned to be ethical examples in pairs, one Greek figure and one similar Roman, though the last four lives are single. They not only record careers and illustrious deeds but also offer rounded portraits of statesmen, orators, and military leaders.

The Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer (eighth century BCE) are the two oldest European epic poems. The latter tells of Odysseus’s journey home from the Trojan War and the temptations, delays, and dangers he faced at every turn.

The Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer (eighth century BCE) are the two oldest European epic poems. The latter tells of Odysseus’s journey home from the Trojan War and the temptations, delays, and dangers he faced at every turn.

As examples of Greek oratory the speeches of Aeschines (390 or 389–314 BCE) rank next to those of Demosthenes, and are important documents for the study of Athenian diplomacy and inner politics. Aeschines’s powerful speeches include Against Timarchus, On the False Embassy, and Against Ctesiphon.

History of the Wars by the Byzantine historian Procopius (late fifth century to after 558 CE) consists largely of sixth century CE military history, with much information about peoples, places, and special events. Powerful description complements careful narration. Procopius is just to the empire’s enemies and boldly criticises emperor Justinian.

The Peloponnesian War was really three conflicts (431–421, 415–413, and 413–404 BCE) that Thucydides was still unifying into one account when he died some time before 396 BCE. Although unfinished and as a whole unrevised, in brilliance of description and depth of insight this history has no superior.

The Peloponnesian War was really three conflicts (431–421, 415–413, and 413–404 BCE) that Thucydides was still unifying into one account when he died some time before 396 BCE. Although unfinished and as a whole unrevised, in brilliance of description and depth of insight this history has no superior.

The Peloponnesian War was really three conflicts (431–421, 415–413, and 413–404 BCE) that Thucydides was still unifying into one account when he died some time before 396 BCE. Although unfinished and as a whole unrevised, in brilliance of description and depth of insight this history has no superior.

Tacitus (c. 55–c. 120 CE), renowned for concision and psychology, is paramount as a historian of the early Roman empire. What survives of Histories covers the dramatic years 69–70. What survives of Annals tells an often terrible tale of 14–28, 31–37, and, partially, 47–66.

Fronto (c. 100–176 CE), a much admired orator and rhetorician, was befriended by the emperor Antoninus Pius and teacher of his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. His correspondence offers an invaluable picture of aristocratic life and literary culture in the 2nd century.

Fronto (c. 100–176 CE), a much admired orator and rhetorician, was befriended by the emperor Antoninus Pius and teacher of his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. His correspondence offers an invaluable picture of aristocratic life and literary culture in the 2nd century.

The only extant work by Livy (64 or 59 BCE –12 or 17 CE) is part of his history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BCE. Of its 142 books 1–10, 21–45 (except parts of 41 and 43–45), fragments, and short summaries remain. Livy’s history is a source for the De Prodigiis of Julius Obsequens (fourth century CE).

The surviving works of Ausonius (c. 310–c. 395 CE) include much poetry, notably The Daily Round and The Moselle. There is also an address of thanks to Gratian for the consulship. The stated aim of Eucharisticus by Paulinus Pellaeus (376–after 459 CE) is to give thanks for the guidance of providence in its author’s life.

Sallust (86–34 BCE) wrote monographs, both extant, on Catiline’s conspiracy and the war with Jugurtha. His history of Rome 78–67 BCE survives in fragments. Other works attributed to him are probably spurious. Sallust’s characterization is vivid and he attempts to explain the meaning of events.

After personal inquiry and study of hearsay and other evidence, Herodotus (born c. 484 BCE) gives us in his famous history of warfare between the Greeks and the Persians a not uncritical estimate of the best that he could find.

After personal inquiry and study of hearsay and other evidence, Herodotus (born c. 484 BCE) gives us in his famous history of warfare between the Greeks and the Persians a not uncritical estimate of the best that he could find.

After personal inquiry and study of hearsay and other evidence, Herodotus (born c. 484 BCE) gives us in his famous history of warfare between the Greeks and the Persians a not uncritical estimate of the best that he could find.

After personal inquiry and study of hearsay and other evidence, Herodotus (born c. 484 BCE) gives us in his famous history of warfare between the Greeks and the Persians a not uncritical estimate of the best that he could find.

Attributed to Apollodorus of Athens (born c. 180 BCE), but probably composed in the first or second century BCE, the Library provides a grand summary of Greek myths and heroic legends about the origin and early history of the world and of the Hellenic people.

Attributed to Apollodorus of Athens (born c. 180 BCE), but probably composed in the first or second century BCE, the Library provides a grand summary of Greek myths and heroic legends about the origin and early history of the world and of the Hellenic people.

The great Athenian philosopher Plato was born in 427 BCE and lived to be eighty. Acknowledged masterpieces among his works are the Symposium, which explores love in its many aspects, from physical desire to pursuit of the beautiful and the good, and the Republic, which concerns righteousness and also treats education, gender, society, and slavery.

Quintilian, born in Spain about 35 CE, became a renowned and successful teacher of rhetoric in Rome. In The Orator’s Education (Institutio Oratoria), a comprehensive training program in twelve books, he draws on his own rich experience. It provides not only insights on oratory, but also a picture of Roman education and social attitudes.

Quintilian, born in Spain about 35 CE, became a renowned and successful teacher of rhetoric in Rome. In The Orator’s Education (Institutio Oratoria), a comprehensive training program in twelve books, he draws on his own rich experience. It provides not only insights on oratory, but also a picture of Roman education and social attitudes.

Quintilian, born in Spain about 35 CE, became a renowned and successful teacher of rhetoric in Rome. In The Orator’s Education (Institutio Oratoria), a comprehensive training program in twelve books, he draws on his own rich experience. It provides not only insights on oratory, but also a picture of Roman education and social attitudes.

Quintilian, born in Spain about 35 CE, became a renowned and successful teacher of rhetoric in Rome. In The Orator’s Education (Institutio Oratoria), a comprehensive training program in twelve books, he draws on his own rich experience. It provides not only insights on oratory, but also a picture of Roman education and social attitudes.

In his history, Polybius (c. 200–118 BCE) is centrally concerned with how and why Roman power spread. The main part of the work, a vital achievement despite the incomplete state in which all but the first five books of an original forty survive, describes the rise of Rome, its destruction of Carthage, and its eventual domination of the Greek world.

Callimachus (third century BCE) authored Hymns and Epigrams. The monodrama Alexandra is attributed to his contemporary, Lycophron. Phaenomena, a poem on star constellations and weather signs by Aratus (c. 315–245 BCE), was among the most widely read in antiquity and one of the few Greek poems translated into Arabic.

Lucian (c. 120–190 CE), apprentice sculptor then travelling rhetorician, settled in Athens and developed an original brand of satire. Notable for the Attic purity and elegance of his Greek and for literary versatility, he is famous chiefly for the lively, cynical wit of the dialogues in which he satirizes human folly, superstition, and hypocrisy.

Unlike his predecessors, Epictetus (c. 50–120 CE), who grew up as a slave, taught Stoicism not for the select few but for the many. A student, the historian Arrian, recorded Epictetus’s lectures and, in the Encheiridion, a handbook, summarized his thought.

Menander (?344/3–292/1 BCE), the dominant figure in New Comedy, wrote over 100 plays, of which one complete play, substantial portions of six others, and smaller but interesting fragments have been recovered. The complete play, Dyskolos (The Peevish Fellow), won first prize in Athens in 317 BCE.

The only extant work by Livy (64 or 59 BCE –12 or 17 CE) is part of his history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BCE. Of its 142 books, 1–10, 21–45 (except parts of 41 and 43–45), fragments, and short summaries remain. Livy’s history is a source for the De Prodigiis of Julius Obsequens (fourth century CE).

In Lives of the Sophists Philostratus (second to third century CE) depicts the widespread influence of Sophistic in the second and third centuries CE. Lives of Philosophers and Sophists by Eunapius (born 347 CE) is our only source concerning Neo-Platonism in the latter part of the fourth century CE.

Claudius Claudianus (c. 370–c. 410 CE) gives us important knowledge of Honorius’s time and displays poetic as well as rhetorical skill, command of language, and diversity. A panegyric on the brothers Probinus and Olybrius (consuls together in 395 CE) was followed mostly by epics in hexameters, but also by elegiacs, epistles, epigrams, and idylls.

Claudius Claudianus (c. 370–c. 410 CE) gives us important knowledge of Honorius’s time and displays poetic as well as rhetorical skill, command of language, and diversity. A panegyric on the brothers Probinus and Olybrius (consuls together in 395 CE) was followed mostly by epics in hexameters, but also by elegiacs, epistles, epigrams, and idylls.

In his history, Polybius (c. 200–118 BCE) is centrally concerned with how and why Roman power spread. The main part of the work, a vital achievement despite the incomplete state in which all but the first five books of an original forty survive, describes the rise of Rome, its destruction of Carthage, and its eventual domination of the Greek world.

In his history, Polybius (c. 200–118 BCE) is centrally concerned with how and why Roman power spread. The main part of the work, a vital achievement despite the incomplete state in which all but the first five books of an original forty survive, describes the rise of Rome, its destruction of Carthage, and its eventual domination of the Greek world.

The Historia Augusta (or Scriptores Historiae Augustae) is a series of biographies of Roman emperors, heirs, and claimants from Hadrian to Numerianus (117–284 CE) modeled on Suetonius’ Lives of the Caesars (second century CE). Of uncertain reliability and authorship, it is now attributed by many authorities to one late fourth century CE author.

The Historia Augusta (or Scriptores Historiae Augustae) is a series of biographies of Roman emperors, heirs, and claimants from Hadrian to Numerianus (117–284 CE) modeled on Suetonius’ Lives of the Caesars (second century CE). Of uncertain reliability and authorship, it is now attributed by many authorities to one late fourth century CE author.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

Sappho, the most famous woman poet of antiquity, whose main theme was love, and Alcaeus, poet of wine, war, and politics, were two illustrious singers of sixth-century BCE Lesbos.

Anacreon (c. 570–485 BCE) was a composer of solo song. The Anacreonta were composed over several centuries. Notable among the earliest writers of choral poetry are the seventh-century BCE Spartans Alcman and Terpander.

Dithyrambic poets of the new school were active from the mid-fifth to mid-fourth century BCE. Anonymous poems include drinking songs, children’s ditties, and cult hymns.

Aeschylus (c. 525–456 BCE) is the dramatist who made Athenian tragedy one of the world’s great art forms. Seven of his eighty or so plays survive complete, including the Oresteia trilogy and the Persians, the only extant Greek historical drama. Fragments of his lost plays also survive.

Aeschylus (c. 525–456 BCE) is the dramatist who made Athenian tragedy one of the world’s great art forms. Seven of his eighty or so plays survive complete, including the Oresteia trilogy and the Persians, the only extant Greek historical drama. Fragments of his lost plays also survive.

Of the roughly seventy treatises in the Hippocratic Collection, many are not by Hippocrates (said to have been born in Cos in or before 460 BCE), but they are essential sources of information about the practice of medicine in antiquity and about Greek theories concerning the human body, and he was undeniably the “Father of Medicine.”

Of the roughly seventy treatises in the Hippocratic Collection, many are not by Hippocrates (said to have been born in Cos in or before 460 BCE), but they are essential sources of information about the practice of medicine in antiquity and about Greek theories concerning the human body, and he was undeniably the “Father of Medicine.”

Of the roughly seventy treatises in the Hippocratic Collection, many are not by Hippocrates (said to have been born in Cos in or before 460 BCE), but they are essential sources of information about the practice of medicine in antiquity and about Greek theories concerning the human body, and he was undeniably the “Father of Medicine.”

Of the roughly seventy treatises in the Hippocratic Collection, many are not by Hippocrates (said to have been born in Cos in or before 460 BCE), but they are essential sources of information about the practice of medicine in antiquity and about Greek theories concerning the human body, and he was undeniably the “Father of Medicine.”

In the melancholy elegies of the Tristia and the Ex Ponto, Ovid (43 BCE–17 CE) writes as from exile in Tomis on the Black Sea, appealing to such people as his wife and the emperor.

Velleius Paterculus lived in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius (30 BCE–37 CE) and wrote a summary of Roman history from the fall of Troy to 29 CE. In 13–14 CE Augustus wrote an account of his public life, Res Gestae Divi Augusti, the best preserved copy of which was engraved on the walls of his temple at Ancyra (Ankara).

Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea from about 315 CE, was the most important writer in the age of Constantine. His history of the Christian church from the ministry of Jesus to 324 CE is a treasury of information, especially on the Eastern centers.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

Demosthenes (384–322 BCE), orator at Athens, was a pleader in law courts who later became also a champion of Athenian greatness and Greek resistance to Philip of Macedon. His steadfastness, pungent argument, and severe control of language gained him early reputation as the best of Greek orators, and his works provide vivid pictures of contemporary life.

The surviving work of Aeneas (fourth century BCE) is on defense against siege. Asclepiodotus (first century BCE) wrote a work on Tactics as though for the lecture room, based on earlier manuals, not personal experience. Onasander’s The General (first century CE) deals with the qualities expected of a general.

The surviving works of the Roman Emperor Julian “the Apostate” (331 or 332–363 CE) include eight Orations; Misopogon (Beard-hater), assailing the morals of the people of Antioch; more than eighty Letters; and fragments of Against the Galileans, written mainly to show that the Old Testament lacks evidence for the idea of Christianity.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

In his history, Polybius (c. 200–118 BCE) is centrally concerned with how and why Roman power spread. The main part of the work, a vital achievement despite the incomplete state in which all but the first five books of an original forty survive, describes the rise of Rome, its destruction of Carthage, and its eventual domination of the Greek world.

Polybius’s theme is how and why the Romans spread their power as they did. The main part of his history covers the years 264–146 BC, describing the rise of Rome, the destruction of Carthage, and the eventual domination of the Greek world. It is a vital achievement despite the incomplete survival of all but the first five of forty books.

Revised translation, forthcoming 2012

For this six-volume edition of The Histories, W.R. Paton’s 1922 translation has been thoroughly revised, the Büttner-Wobst Greek text corrected, and explanatory notes and a new introduction added. All but the first five of forty volumes survive in an incomplete state. Volume VI includes fragments unattributed to particular books of The Histories.

Lucian (c. 120–190 CE), apprentice sculptor then travelling rhetorician, settled in Athens and developed an original brand of satire. Notable for the Attic purity and elegance of his Greek and for literary versatility, he is famous chiefly for the lively, cynical wit of the dialogues in which he satirizes human folly, superstition, and hypocrisy.

The comedies of Plautus, who brilliantly adapted Greek plays for Roman audiences c. 205–184 BCE, are the earliest Latin works to survive complete and cornerstones of the European theatrical tradition from Shakespeare and Molière to modern times. Twenty-one of his plays are extant.

The great Athenian philosopher Plato was born in 427 BCE and lived to be eighty. Acknowledged masterpieces among his works are the Symposium, which explores love in its many aspects, from physical desire to pursuit of the beautiful and the good, and the Republic, which concerns righteousness and also treats education, gender, society, and slavery.

The great Athenian philosopher Plato was born in 427 BCE and lived to be eighty. Acknowledged masterpieces among his works are the Symposium, which explores love in its many aspects, from physical desire to pursuit of the beautiful and the good, and the Republic, which concerns righteousness and also treats education, gender, society, and slavery.

The great Athenian philosopher Plato was born in 427 BCE and lived to be eighty. Acknowledged masterpieces among his works are the Symposium, which explores love in its many aspects, from physical desire to pursuit of the beautiful and the good, and the Republic, which concerns righteousness and also treats education, gender, society, and slavery.

The great Athenian philosopher Plato was born in 427 BCE and lived to be eighty. Acknowledged masterpieces among his works are the Symposium, which explores love in its many aspects, from physical desire to pursuit of the beautiful and the good, and the Republic, which concerns righteousness and also treats education, gender, society, and slavery.

In Memorabilia, Xenophon (c. 430–c. 354 BCE) adds to Plato’s picture of Socrates from a different viewpoint. The Apology complements Plato’s account of Socrates’s defense at his trial. The Symposium portrays a dinner party at which Socrates speaks of love. In Oeconomicus, Socrates advises on household management and married life.

The Peloponnesian War was really three conflicts (431–421, 415–413, and 413–404 BCE) that Thucydides was still unifying into one account when he died some time before 396 BCE. Although unfinished and as a whole unrevised, in brilliance of description and depth of insight this history has no superior.

The Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer (eighth century BCE) are the two oldest European epic poems. The former tells of Achilles’s anger over an insult to his honour during the Trojan War, and of its consequences for the Achaeans, the Trojans, and Achilles himself.

The Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer (eighth century BCE) are the two oldest European epic poems. The former tells of Achilles’s anger over an insult to his honour during the Trojan War, and of its consequences for the Achaeans, the Trojans, and Achilles himself.

The only extant work by Livy (64 or 59 BCE –12 or 17 CE) is part of his history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BCE. Of its 142 books, 1–10, 21–45 (except parts of 41 and 43–45), fragments, and short summaries remain. Livy’s history is a source for the De Prodigiis of Julius Obsequens (fourth century CE).

History of the Wars by the Byzantine historian Procopius (late fifth century to after 558 CE) consists largely of sixth century CE military history, with much information about peoples, places, and special events. Powerful description complements careful narration. Procopius is just to the empire’s enemies and boldly criticises emperor Justinian.

Frontinus’s Stratagems, written after 84 CE, gives examples of military stratagems and discipline from Greek and Roman history, for the instruction of Roman officers. The Aqueducts of Rome, written in 97–98, gives some historical details and a description of the aqueducts for the water supply of the city, with laws relating to them.

Dio Cassius (Cassius Dio), c. 150–235 CE, was born in Bithynia. Little of his Roman History survives, but missing portions are partly supplied from elsewhere and there are many excerpts. Dio’s work is a vital source for the last years of the Roman republic and the first four Roman emperors.

Dio Cassius (Cassius Dio), c. 150–235 CE, was born in Bithynia. Little of his Roman History survives, but missing portions are partly supplied from elsewhere and there are many excerpts. Dio’s work is a vital source for the last years of the Roman republic and the first four Roman emperors.

Dio Cassius (Cassius Dio), c. 150–235 CE, was born in Bithynia. Little of his Roman History survives, but missing portions are partly supplied from elsewhere and there are many excerpts. Dio’s work is a vital source for the last years of the Roman republic and the first four Roman emperors.

Aristophanes (c. 450–c. 386 BCE) has been admired since antiquity for his wit, fantasy, language, and satire. In Acharnians a small landowner, tired of the Peloponnesian War, magically arranges a personal peace treaty; Knights is perhaps the most biting satire of a political figure (Cleon) ever written.

Aristophanes (c. 450–c. 386 BCE) has been admired since antiquity for his wit, fantasy, language, and satire. The protagonists of Birds create a utopian counter-Athens. In Lysistrata wives go on conjugal strike until their husbands end war. Women in Women at the Thesmophoria punish Euripides for portraying them as wicked.

Aristophanes (c. 450–c. 386 BCE) has been admired since antiquity for his wit, fantasy, language, and satire. Traditional Aeschylus and modern Euripides compete in Frogs. In Assemblywomen, Athenian women plot against male misgovernance. The humor and morality of Wealth made it the most popular of Aristophanes’ plays until the Renaissance.

Lucretius lived ca. 99–ca. 55 BCE, but the details of his career are unknown. In his didactic poem De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things) he expounds Epicurean philosophy so as to dispel fear of the gods and death, and promote spiritual tranquility.

In his seventeen-book Geography, Strabo (c. 64 BCE–c. 25 CE) discusses geographical method, stresses the value of geography, and draws attention to the physical, political, and historical details of separate countries. Geography is a vital source for ancient geography and informative about ancient geographers.

Minor works by Xenophon (c. 430–c. 354 BCE) include Hiero, a dialogue on government; Agesilaus, in praise of that king; Constitution of Lacedaemon, on the Spartan system; Ways and Means, on the finances of Athens; and a manual of Horsemanship. The Constitution of the Athenians, though not by Xenophon, is an interesting document on Athenian politics.

Diogenes Laertius (probably early third century BCE) compiled his compendium on the lives and doctrines of the ancient philosophers from hundreds of sources. It ranges over three centuries, from Thales to Epicurus, portraying forty-five important figures, and is enriched by numerous quotations.

Diogenes Laertius (probably early third century BCE) compiled his compendium on the lives and doctrines of the ancient philosophers from hundreds of sources. It ranges over three centuries, from Thales to Epicurus, portraying forty-five important figures, and is enriched by numerous quotations.

The major works of Josephus (c. 37–after 97 CE) are History of the Jewish War, from 170 BCE to his own time, and Jewish Antiquities, from creation to 66 CE. Also by him are an autobiographical Life and a treatise Against Apion.

The great Athenian philosopher Plato was born in 427 BCE and lived to be eighty. Acknowledged masterpieces among his works are the Symposium, which explores love in its many aspects, from physical desire to pursuit of the beautiful and the good, and the Republic, which concerns righteousness and also treats education, gender, society, and slavery.

Pausanias (fl. 150 CE), one of the Roman world’s great travelers, sketches in Description of Greece the history, geography, landmarks, legends, and religious cults of all the important Greek cities. He shares his enthusiasm for great sites, describing them with care and an accuracy confirmed by comparison with monuments that still stand today.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

Basil the Great was born into a family noted for piety. About 360 he founded a convent in Pontus and in 370 succeeded Eusebius in the archbishopric of Caesarea. His reform of monastic life in the east is the basis of modern Greek and Slavonic monasteries.

The only extant work by Livy (64 or 59 BCE –12 or 17 CE) is part of his history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BCE. Of its 142 books, 1–10, 21–45 (except parts of 41 and 43–45), fragments, and short summaries remain. Livy’s history is a source for the De Prodigiis of Julius Obsequens (fourth century CE).

The great Athenian philosopher Plato was born in 427 BCE and lived to be eighty. Acknowledged masterpieces among his works are the Symposium, which explores love in its many aspects, from physical desire to pursuit of the beautiful and the good, and the Republic, which concerns righteousness and also treats education, gender, society, and slavery.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

The poetry of Horace (born 65 BCE) is richly varied, its focus moving between public and private concerns, urban and rural settings, Stoic and Epicurean thought. In the Satires Horace mocks himself as well as the world. His verse epistles include the Art of Poetry, in which he famously expounds his literary theory.

Aulus Gellius (c. 123–170 CE) offers in Attic Nights (Gellius began to write these pieces during stays in Athens) a collection of short chapters about notable events, words and questions of literary style, lives of historical figures, legal points, and philosophical issues that served as instructive light reading for cultivated Romans.

In his seventeen-book Geography, Strabo (c. 64 BCE–c. 25 CE) discusses geographical method, stresses the value of geography, and draws attention to the physical, political, and historical details of separate countries. Geography is a vital source for ancient geography and informative about ancient geographers.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

In Poetics, Aristotle (384–322 BCE) treats Greek tragedy and epic. The subject of On the Sublime, attributed to an (unidentifiable) Longinus and probably composed in the first century CE, is greatness in writing. On Style, attributed to an (unidentifiable) Demetrius and perhaps composed in the second century BCE, analyzes four literary styles.

Aulus Gellius (c. 123–170 CE) offers in Attic Nights (Gellius began to write these pieces during stays in Athens) a collection of short chapters about notable events, words and questions of literary style, lives of historical figures, legal points, and philosophical issues that served as instructive light reading for cultivated Romans.

The great Athenian philosopher Plato was born in 427 BCE and lived to be eighty. Acknowledged masterpieces among his works are the Symposium, which explores love in its many aspects, from physical desire to pursuit of the beautiful and the good, and the Republic, which concerns righteousness and also treats education, gender, society, and slavery.

Isaeus (c. 420–350 BCE) composed speeches for others. He shares with Lysias pure Attic and lucidity of style, but his more aggressive and flexible presentation undoubtedly influenced Demosthenes. Of at least fifty attributed orations, there survive eleven on legacy cases and a large fragment dealing with a claim of citizenship.

The major works of Josephus (c. 37–after 97 CE) are History of the Jewish War, from 170 BCE to his own time, and Jewish Antiquities, from creation to 66 CE. Also by him are an autobiographical Life and a treatise Against Apion.

In The Learned Banqueters (late-2nd century CE), Athenaeus describes a series of dinner parties at which the guests quote extensively from Greek literature. The work provides quotations from works now lost, and preserves information about wide range of information about Greek culture.

Cicero’s letters to friends span the period from 62 BCE, when his political career was at its peak, to 43 BCE, when he was put to death by the victorious Triumvirs.

Greek literary education and Roman political reality are evident in the poetry of Statius (c. 50–96 CE). His Silvae are thirty-two occasional poems. His masterpiece, the epic Thebaid, recounts the struggle for kingship between the two sons of Oedipus. The extant portion of his Achilleid begins an account of Achilles’ life and renews epic.

Greek literary education and Roman political reality are evident in the poetry of Statius (c. 50–96 CE). His Silvae are thirty-two occasional poems. His masterpiece, the epic Thebaid, recounts the struggle for kingship between the two sons of Oedipus. The extant portion of his Achilleid begins an account of Achilles’s life and renews epic.

In The Learned Banqueters (late-2nd century CE), Athenaeus describes a series of dinner parties at which the guests quote extensively from Greek literature. The work provides quotations from works now lost, and preserves information about wide range of information about Greek culture.

The importance of Isocrates (436–338 BCE) for the study of Greek civilization of the fourth century BCE is indisputable. Twenty-one discourses by Isocrates survive; these include political essays, treatises on education and on ethics, and speeches for legal cases. Nine letters, more on public than private matters, are also extant.

The major works of Josephus (c. 37–after 97 CE) are History of the Jewish War, from 170 BCE to his own time, and Jewish Antiquities, from creation to 66 CE. Also by him are an autobiographical Life and a treatise Against Apion.

In his seventeen-book Geography, Strabo (c. 64 BCE–c. 25 CE) discusses geographical method, stresses the value of geography, and draws attention to the physical, political, and historical details of separate countries. Geography is a vital source for ancient geography and informative about ancient geographers.

Aulus Gellius (c. 123–170 CE) offers in Attic Nights (Gellius began to write these pieces during stays in Athens) a collection of short chapters about notable events, words and questions of literary style, lives of historical figures, legal points, and philosophical issues that served as instructive light reading for cultivated Romans.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

In Moral Essays, Seneca (c. 4–65 CE) expresses his Stoic philosophy on providence, steadfastness, anger, forgiveness, consolation, the happy life, leisure, tranquility, the brevity of life, and gift-giving.

Basil the Great was born into a family noted for piety. About 360 he founded a convent in Pontus and in 370 succeeded Eusebius in the archbishopric of Caesarea. His reform of monastic life in the east is the basis of modern Greek and Slavonic monasteries.

Cicero’s letters to friends span the period from 62 BCE, when his political career was at its peak, to 43 BCE, when he was put to death by the victorious Triumvirs.

History of the Wars by the Byzantine historian Procopius (late fifth century to after 558 CE) consists largely of sixth century CE military history, with much information about peoples, places, and special events. Powerful description complements careful narration. Procopius is just to the empire’s enemies and boldly criticises emperor Justinian.

Unlike his predecessors, Epictetus (c. 50–120 CE), who grew up as a slave, taught Stoicism not for the select few but for the many. A student, the historian Arrian, recorded Epictetus’s lectures and, in the Encheiridion, a handbook, summarized his thought.

In Fishing, Oppian of Cilicia, who flourished in the latter half of the second century CE, discusses fish and gives angling instructions. The Chase, on hunting, may be the work of a Syrian imitator. Colluthus and Tryphiodorus (properly Triphiodorus), epic poets of Egypt, wrote in the second half of the fifth century CE.

In his epic The Civil War, Lucan (39–65 CE) carries us from Caesar’s fateful crossing of the Rubicon, through the Battle of Pharsalus, Pompey’s death, and Cato’s leadership in Africa, to Caesar victorious in Egypt. The poem is also called Pharsalia.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

In his seventeen-book Geography, Strabo (c. 64 BCE–c. 25 CE) discusses geographical method, stresses the value of geography, and draws attention to the physical, political, and historical details of separate countries. Geography is a vital source for ancient geography and informative about ancient geographers.

In The Learned Banqueters (late-2nd century CE), Athenaeus describes a series of dinner parties at which the guests quote extensively from Greek literature. The work provides quotations from works now lost, and preserves information about wide range of information about Greek culture.

Fictionalized faults are the focus of Characters by Theophrastus (c. 370–c. 285 BCE). The Hellenistic poet Herodas wrote Mimes, in which everyday life is portrayed and character as opposed to plot depicted. Mimes by Sophron (fifth century BCE) and anonymous mime fragments also represent that genre.

The philosopher Philo, born about 20 BCE to a prominent Jewish family in Alexandria, was trained in Greek as well as Jewish learning. In attempting to reconcile biblical teachings with Greek philosophy he developed ideas that had wide influence on Christian and Jewish religious thought.

The philosopher Philo, born about 20 BCE to a prominent Jewish family in Alexandria, was trained in Greek as well as Jewish learning. In attempting to reconcile biblical teachings with Greek philosophy he developed ideas that had wide influence on Christian and Jewish religious thought.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

The importance of Isocrates (436–338 BCE) for the study of Greek civilization of the fourth century BCE is indisputable. Twenty-one discourses by Isocrates survive; these include political essays, treatises on education and on ethics, and speeches for legal cases. Nine letters, more on public than private matters, are also extant.

Cicero’s letters to friends span the period from 62 BCE, when his political career was at its peak, to 43 BCE, when he was put to death by the victorious Triumvirs.

Florus (second century CE) wrote, in brief pointed rhetorical style, a two-book summary of Roman history (especially military) in order to show the greatness and decline of Roman morals. Based chiefly on Livy and perhaps planned to reach Florus’ own times, the extant work ends with Augustus’s reign (30 BCE–14 CE).

In the didactic poetry of Face Cosmetics, Art of Love, and Remedies for Love, Ovid (43 BCE–17 CE) demonstrates abstrusity and wit. His Ibis is an elegiac curse-poem. Nux, Halieutica, and Consolatio ad Liviam are poems now judged not to be by Ovid.

The only extant work by Livy (64 or 59 BCE –12 or 17 CE) is part of his history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BCE. Of its 142 books, 1–10, 21–45 (except parts of 41 and 43–45), fragments, and short summaries remain. Livy’s history is a source for the De Prodigiis of Julius Obsequens (fourth century CE).

The great Athenian philosopher Plato was born in 427 BCE and lived to be eighty. Acknowledged masterpieces among his works are the Symposium, which explores love in its many aspects, from physical desire to pursuit of the beautiful and the good, and the Republic, which concerns righteousness and also treats education, gender, society, and slavery.

In The Learned Banqueters (late-2nd century CE), Athenaeus describes a series of dinner parties at which the guests quote extensively from Greek literature. The work provides quotations from works now lost, and preserves information about wide range of information about Greek culture.

The Anabasis of Alexander by Arrian (ca. 95–175 BCE) is the best extant account of Alexander the Great’s adult life. A description of India, and of Nearchus’ voyage thence, was to be a supplement.

Revised translation, forthcoming 2012

Plato’s Republic concerns righteousness both in individuals and in communities, and proposes an ideal state organized and governed on philosophical principles. This edition, which replaces Shorey’s, offers text, translation, and annotation that are fully current with modern scholarship. The Loeb Classical Library edition of Plato is in 12 volumes.

Demosthenes (384–322 BCE), orator at Athens, was a pleader in law courts who later became also a champion of Athenian greatness and Greek resistance to Philip of Macedon. His steadfastness, pungent argument, and severe control of language gained him early reputation as the best of Greek orators, and his works provide vivid pictures of contemporary life.

Letters of Augustine (354–430CE) are important for the study of ecclesiastical history and Augustine’s relations with other theologians.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

In his seventeen-book Geography, Strabo (c. 64 BCE–c. 25 CE) discusses geographical method, stresses the value of geography, and draws attention to the physical, political, and historical details of separate countries. Geography is a vital source for ancient geography and informative about ancient geographers.

The major works of Josephus (c. 37–after 97 CE) are History of the Jewish War, from 170 BCE to his own time, and Jewish Antiquities, from creation to 66 CE. Also by him are an autobiographical Life and a treatise Against Apion.

Basil the Great was born into a family noted for piety. About 360 he founded a convent in Pontus and in 370 succeeded Eusebius in the archbishopric of Caesarea. His reform of monastic life in the east is the basis of modern Greek and Slavonic monasteries.

Lysias (c. 458–c. 380 BCE) took the side of democracy against the Thirty Tyrants in 404 BCE. Of a much larger number about thirty complete speeches by him survive. Fluent, simple, and graceful in style yet vivid in description, they suggest a passionate partisan who was also a gentle, humorous man.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

Historical works by Bede (672 or 673–735 CE) include his Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, Lives of the Abbots of Bede’s monastery, accounts of Cuthbert, and the Letter to Egbert, Bede’s pupil.

The philosopher Philo, born about 20 BCE to a prominent Jewish family in Alexandria, was trained in Greek as well as Jewish learning. In attempting to reconcile biblical teachings with Greek philosophy he developed ideas that had wide influence on Christian and Jewish religious thought.

Historical works by Bede (672 or 673–735 CE) include his Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, Lives of the Abbots of Bede’s monastery, accounts of Cuthbert, and the Letter to Egbert, Bede’s pupil.

Tacitus (c. 55–c. 120 CE), renowned for concision and psychology, is paramount as a historian of the early Roman empire. What survives of Histories covers the dramatic years 69–70. What survives of Annals tells an often terrible tale of 14–28, 31–37, and, partially, 47–66.

Tertullian (c. 150–222 CE) founded a Christian Latin language and literature, strove to unite the demands of the Bible with Church practice, defended Christianity, attacked heresy, and pondered morality. Octavius by Minucius, an early Christian writer of unknown date, is a debate between belief and unbelief that depicts Roman religion and society.

On Architecture, completed by Vitruvius sometime before 27 CE and the only work of its kind to survive antiquity, serves not professionals but readers who want to understand architecture. Topics include town planning, building materials, temples, the architectural orders, houses, pavements, mosaics, water supply, measurements, and machines.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

In Fasti Ovid (43 BCE–17 CE) sets forth explanations of the festivals and sacred rites that were noted on the Roman calendar, and relates in graphic detail the legends attached to specific dates. The poem is an invaluable source of information about religious practices.

In Moral Essays, Seneca (c. 4–65 CE) expresses his Stoic philosophy on providence, steadfastness, anger, forgiveness, consolation, the happy life, leisure, tranquility, the brevity of life, and gift-giving.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

Sixty-five descriptions, ostensibly of paintings in a gallery at Naples, are credited to an Elder Philostratus (born c. 190 CE); to a Younger Philostratus, apparently his grandson, seventeen similar descriptions. Fourteen descriptions of statues in stone or bronze attributed to Callistratus were probably written in the fourth century CE.

Dio Chrysostomus (c. 40–c. 120 CE) was a rhetorician hostile to philosophers, whose Discourses (or Orations) reflect political or moral concerns. What survives of his works make him prominent in the revival of Greek literature in the late first and early second century CE.

The Greek poetry of the seventh to the fifth century BCE that we call elegy was composed primarily for banquets and convivial gatherings. Its subject matter consists of almost any topic, excluding only the scurrilous and obscene.

The poetry of the seventh to the fifth centuries BCE that the Greeks called iambic seems connected with cult songs used in religious festivals, but its purpose is unclear.

The rollicking comedies of Plautus, who brilliantly adapted Greek plays for Roman audiences c. 205–184 BC, are the earliest Latin works to survive complete and are cornerstones of the European theatrical tradition from Shakespeare and Molière to modern times. This volume presents three of the twenty-one plays in new translation.

The philosopher Philo, born about 20 BCE to a prominent Jewish family in Alexandria, was trained in Greek as well as Jewish learning. In attempting to reconcile biblical teachings with Greek philosophy he developed ideas that had wide influence on Christian and Jewish religious thought.

The letters of Saint Jerome (c. 345–420 CE) are an essential source for our knowledge of Christian life in the fourth and fifth centuries CE; they also provide insight into one of the most striking and complex personalities of the time.

The Historia Augusta (or Scriptores Historiae Augustae) is a series of biographies of Roman emperors, heirs, and claimants from Hadrian to Numerianus (117–284 CE) modeled on Suetonius’ Lives of the Caesars (second century CE). Of uncertain reliability and authorship, it is now attributed by many authorities to one late fourth century CE author.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea from about 315 CE, was the most important writer in the age of Constantine. His history of the Christian church from the ministry of Jesus to 324 CE is a treasury of information, especially on the Eastern centers.

This is the first of two volumes giving a selection of Greek papyri relating to private and public business. They cover a period from before 300 BCE to the eighth century CE. Most were found in rubbish heaps or remains of ancient houses or in tombs in Egypt. From such papyri we get much information about administration and social and economic conditions in Egypt, and about native Egyptian, Greek, Roman and Byzantine law, as well as glimpses of ordinary life. This volume contains: Agreements, 71 examples; these concern marriage, divorce, adoption, apprenticeship, sales, leases, employment of labourers. Receipts, 10. Wills, 6. Deed of disownment. Personal letters from men and women, young and old, 82. Memoranda, 2. Invitations, 5. Orders for payment, 2. Agenda, 2. Accounts and inventories, 12. Questions of oracles, 3. Christian prayers, 2. A Gnostic charm. Horoscopes, 2.

In his seventeen-book Geography, Strabo (c. 64 BCE–c. 25 CE) discusses geographical method, stresses the value of geography, and draws attention to the physical, political, and historical details of separate countries. Geography is a vital source for ancient geography and informative about ancient geographers.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

The Anabasis of Alexander by Arrian (ca. 95–175 BCE) is the best extant account of Alexander the Great’s adult life. A description of India, and of Nearchus’s voyage thence, was to be a supplement.

Basil the Great was born into a family noted for piety. About 360 he founded a convent in Pontus and in 370 succeeded Eusebius in the archbishopric of Caesarea. His reform of monastic life in the east is the basis of modern Greek and Slavonic monasteries.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

Pausanias (fl. 150 CE), one of the Roman world’s great travelers, sketches in Description of Greece the history, geography, landmarks, legends, and religious cults of all the important Greek cities. He shares his enthusiasm for great sites, describing them with care and an accuracy confirmed by comparison with monuments that still stand today.

The three surviving works by Sextus Empiricus (c. 160–210 CE) are Outlines of Pyrrhonism, Against the Dogmatists, and Against the Professors. Their value as a source for the history of thought is especially that they represent development and formulation of former sceptic doctrines.

In The Learned Banqueters (late-2nd century CE), Athenaeus describes a series of dinner parties at which the guests quote extensively from Greek literature. The work provides quotations from works now lost, and preserves information about wide range of information about Greek culture.

The philosopher Philo, born about 20 BCE to a prominent Jewish family in Alexandria, was trained in Greek as well as Jewish learning. In attempting to reconcile biblical teachings with Greek philosophy he developed ideas that had wide influence on Christian and Jewish religious thought.

Revised translation, forthcoming 2012

Plato’s Republic concerns righteousness both in individuals and in communities, and proposes an ideal state organized and governed on philosophical principles. This edition, which replaces Shorey’s, offers text, translation, and annotation that are fully current with modern scholarship. The Loeb Classical Library edition of Plato is in 12 volumes.

Silius Italicus (25–101 CE) composed an epic Punica in 17 books on the Second Punic War (218–202 BCE). Silius’s poem relies largely on Livy’s prose for facts. It also echoes poets, especially Virgil, and employs techniques traditional in Latin epic.

Silius Italicus (25–101 CE) composed an epic Punica in 17 books on the Second Punic War (218–202 BCE). Silius’s poem relies largely on Livy’s prose for facts. It also echoes poets, especially Virgil, and employs techniques traditional in Latin epic.

Diodorus’ Library of History, written in the first century BCE, is the most extensively preserved history by an ancient Greek author. The work is in three parts: mythical history to the Trojan War; history to Alexander’s death (323 BCE); history to 54 BCE. Books 1–5 and 11–20 survive complete, the rest in fragments.

On Architecture, completed by Vitruvius sometime before 27 CE and the only work of its kind to survive antiquity, serves not professionals but readers who want to understand architecture. Topics include town planning, building materials, temples, the architectural orders, houses, pavements, mosaics, water supply, measurements, and machines.

The major works of Josephus (c. 37–after 97 CE) are History of the Jewish War, from 170 BCE to his own time, and Jewish Antiquities, from creation to 66 CE. Also by him are an autobiographical Life and a treatise Against Apion.

Greek papyri relating to private and public business in Egypt from before 300 BCE to the eighth century CE inform us about administration; social and economic conditions in Egypt; Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine law. They also offer glimpses of ordinary life.

Cato’s second century BCE De Agricultura is our earliest complete Latin prose text, recommends farming for its security and profitability, and advises on management of labor and resources. Varro’s Res rustica (37 BCE) is not a practical treatise but instruction, in dialogue form, about agricultural life meant for prosperous country gentlemen.

Works such as those of the mime-writer Publilius Syrus, who flourished c. 45 BCE, and Rutilius Namatianus, who gave a graphic account of his voyage from Rome to Gaul in 416 CE, represent the wide variety of theme that lends interest to Latin poetry produced during a period of four and a half centuries.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

Valerius Flaccus flourished c. 70–90 BCE and composed an incomplete epic Argonautica in eight books, on the quest for the golden fleece. Valerius effectively rehandles the story already told by Apollonius Rhodius, recalls Virgilian language and thought, displays learning, and alludes to contemporary Rome.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

The philosopher Philo, born about 20 BCE to a prominent Jewish family in Alexandria, was trained in Greek as well as Jewish learning. In attempting to reconcile biblical teachings with Greek philosophy he developed ideas that had wide influence on Christian and Jewish religious thought.

In Secret History the Byzantine historian Procopius (late fifth century to after 558 CE) attacks the sixth century CE emperor Justinian and empress Theodora and alleges their ruinous effect on the Roman empire. Procopius’ pen is particularly sharp in portraying Theodora’s lewdness, duplicity, cruelty, spite, vanity and pride.

The three surviving works by Sextus Empiricus (c. 160–210 CE) are Outlines of Pyrrhonism, Against the Dogmatists, and Against the Professors. Their value as a source for the history of thought is especially that they represent development and formulation of former sceptic doctrines.

Celsus, a layman, provides in On Medicine more information about the condition of medical science up to his own time (probably first century CE) than any other author. Book I is on Greek schools of medicine and dietetics; Book II on prognosis, diagnosis, and general therapeutics; Book III on internal ailments; Book IV on local bodily diseases.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

Extant early Latin writings from the seventh or sixth to the first century BCE include epic, drama, satire, translation and paraphrase, hymns, stage history and practice, and other works by Ennius, Caecilius, Livius Andronicus, Naevius, Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, and other anonymous authors; the Twelve Tables of Roman law; archaic inscriptions.

The only extant work by Livy (64 or 59 BCE –12 or 17 CE) is part of his history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BCE. Of its 142 books, 1–10, 21–45 (except parts of 41 and 43–45), fragments, and short summaries remain. Livy’s history is a source for the De Prodigiis of Julius Obsequens (fourth century CE).

Extant works by Sidonius (born c. 430 CE) are three long panegyrics in verse, poems addressed to or concerned with friends, and nine books of letters.

Pausanias (fl. 150 CE), one of the Roman world’s great travelers, sketches in Description of Greece the history, geography, landmarks, legends, and religious cults of all the important Greek cities. He shares his enthusiasm for great sites, describing them with care and an accuracy confirmed by comparison with monuments that still stand today.

Pausanias (fl. 150 CE), one of the Roman world’s great travelers, sketches in Description of Greece the history, geography, landmarks, legends, and religious cults of all the important Greek cities. He shares his enthusiasm for great sites, describing them with care and an accuracy confirmed by comparison with monuments that still stand today.

Demosthenes (384–322 BCE), orator at Athens, was a pleader in law courts who later became also a champion of Athenian greatness and Greek resistance to Philip of Macedon. His steadfastness, pungent argument, and severe control of language gained him early reputation as the best of Greek orators, and his works provide vivid pictures of contemporary life.

Ammianus (c. 325–c. 395 CE), a Greek from Antioch, served many years as an officer in the Roman army, then settled in Rome, where he wrote a Latin history of the Roman Empire. The portion that survives covers twenty-five years in the historian’s own lifetime: the reigns of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens.

The only extant work by Livy (64 or 59 BCE –12 or 17 CE) is part of his history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BCE. Of its 142 books, 1–10, 21–45 (except parts of 41 and 43–45), fragments, and short summaries remain. Livy’s history is a source for the De Prodigiis of Julius Obsequens (fourth century CE).

Lucian (c. 120–190 CE), apprentice sculptor then travelling rhetorician, settled in Athens and developed an original brand of satire. Notable for the Attic purity and elegance of his Greek and for literary versatility, he is famous chiefly for the lively, cynical wit of the dialogues in which he satirizes human folly, superstition, and hypocrisy.

Diodorus’ Library of History, written in the first century BCE, is the most extensively preserved history by an ancient Greek author. The work is in three parts: mythical history to the Trojan War; history to Alexander’s death (323 BCE); history to 54 BCE. Books 1–5 and 11–20 survive complete, the rest in fragments.

Celsus, a layman, provides in On Medicine more information about the condition of medical science up to his own time (probably first century CE) than any other author. Book V is on treatment by drugs of general diseases, Book VI on treatment by drugs of local diseases.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

Antiphon of Athens, born c. 480 BCE, disliked democracy and was an ardent oligarch. Of his fifteen extant works three concern real murder cases. The others are academic exercises. Andocides of Athens, born c. 440 BCE, disliked the extremes of democracy and oligarchy. Of his four extant speeches Against Alcibiades is doubtful.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

In Moral Essays, Seneca (c. 4–65 CE) expresses his Stoic philosophy on providence, steadfastness, anger, forgiveness, consolation, the happy life, leisure, tranquility, the brevity of life, and gift-giving.

The three surviving works by Sextus Empiricus (c. 160–210 CE) are Outlines of Pyrrhonism, Against the Dogmatists, and Against the Professors. Their value as a source for the history of thought is especially that they represent development and formulation of former sceptic doctrines.

Tacitus (c. 55–c. 120 CE), renowned for concision and psychology, is paramount as a historian of the early Roman empire. What survives of Histories covers the dramatic years 69–70. What survives of Annals tells an often terrible tale of 14–28, 31–37, and, partially, 47–66.

The only extant work by Livy (64 or 59 BCE –12 or 17 CE) is part of his history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BCE. Of its 142 books, 1–10, 21–45 (except parts of 41 and 43–45), fragments, and short summaries remain. Livy’s history is a source for the De Prodigiis of Julius Obsequens (fourth century CE).

Extant early Latin writings from the seventh or sixth to the first century BCE include epic, drama, satire, translation and paraphrase, hymns, stage history and practice, and other works by Ennius, Caecilius, Livius Andronicus, Naevius, Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, and other anonymous authors; the Twelve Tables of Roman law; archaic inscriptions.

Ammianus (c. 325–c. 395 CE), a Greek from Antioch, served many years as an officer in the Roman army, then settled in Rome, where he wrote a Latin history of the Roman Empire. The portion that survives covers twenty-five years in the historian’s own lifetime: the reigns of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens.

Although Problems is an accretion of multiple authorship over several centuries, it offers a fascinating technical view of Peripatetic method and thought.

Although Problems is an accretion of multiple authorship over several centuries, it offers a fascinating technical view of Peripatetic method and thought. Rhetoric to Alexander provides practical advice to orators and was likely composed during the period of Aristotle’s tutorship of Alexander, perhaps by Anaximenes, another of Alexander’s tutors.

Demosthenes (384–322 BCE), orator at Athens, was a pleader in law courts who later became also a champion of Athenian greatness and Greek resistance to Philip of Macedon. His steadfastness, pungent argument, and severe control of language gained him early reputation as the best of Greek orators, and his works provide vivid pictures of contemporary life.

The main aim of Dionysius of Halicarnassus’ Roman Antiquities, which began to appear in 7 BCE, was to reconcile Greeks to Roman rule. Of the twenty books (from the earliest times to 264 BCE) we have the first nine complete; most of 10 and 11; extracts; and an epitome of the whole.

The philosopher Philo, born about 20 BCE to a prominent Jewish family in Alexandria, was trained in Greek as well as Jewish learning. In attempting to reconcile biblical teachings with Greek philosophy he developed ideas that had wide influence on Christian and Jewish religious thought.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

Tacitus (c. 55–c. 120 CE), renowned for concision and psychology, is paramount as a historian of the early Roman empire. What survives of Histories covers the dramatic years 69–70. What survives of Annals tells an often terrible tale of 14–28, 31–37, and, partially, 47–66.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

The major works of Josephus (c. 37–after 97 CE) are History of the Jewish War, from 170 BCE to his own time, and Jewish Antiquities, from creation to 66 CE. Also by him are an autobiographical Life and a treatise Against Apion.

In The Learned Banqueters (late-2nd century CE), Athenaeus describes a series of dinner parties at which the guests quote extensively from Greek literature. The work provides quotations from works now lost, and preserves information about wide range of information about Greek culture.

The comedies of Plautus, who brilliantly adapted Greek plays for Roman audiences c. 205–184 BCE, are the earliest Latin works to survive complete and cornerstones of the European theatrical tradition from Shakespeare and Molière to modern times. Twenty-one of his plays are extant.

Extant early Latin writings from the seventh or sixth to the first century BCE include epic, drama, satire, translation and paraphrase, hymns, stage history and practice, and other works by Ennius, Caecilius, Livius Andronicus, Naevius, Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, and other anonymous authors; the Twelve Tables of Roman law; archaic inscriptions.

Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) produced in his Natural History a vast compendium of Roman knowledge. Topics included are the mathematics and metrology of the universe; world geography and ethnography; human anthropology and physiology; zoology; botany, agriculture, and horticulture; medicine; minerals, fine arts, and gemstones.

Ammianus (c. 325–c. 395 CE), a Greek from Antioch, served many years as an officer in the Roman army, then settled in Rome, where he wrote a Latin history of the Roman Empire. The portion that survives covers twenty-five years in the historian’s own lifetime: the reigns of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens.

The only extant work by Livy (64 or 59 BCE –12 or 17 CE) is part of his history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BCE. Of its 142 books, 1–10, 21–45 (except parts of 41 and 43–45), fragments, and short summaries remain. Livy’s history is a source for the De Prodigiis of Julius Obsequens (fourth century CE).

Of more than seventy works by Varro (116–27 BCE) we have only his treatise On Agriculture and part of his On the Latin Language, a work typical of its author’s interest not only in antiquarian matters but also in the collection of scientific facts, and containing much of very great value to the study of the Latin language.

Of more than seventy works by Varro (116–27 BCE) we have only his treatise On Agriculture and part of his On the Latin Language, a work typical of its author’s interest not only in antiquarian matters but also in the collection of scientific facts, and containing much of very great value to the study of the Latin language.

Greek mathematics from the sixth century BCE to the fourth century CE is represented by the work of, e.g., Pythagoras; Proclus; Thales; Democritus; Hippocrates of Chios; Theaetetus; Plato; Eudoxus of Cnidus; Aristotle; Euclid; Eratosthenes; Apollonius; Ptolemy; Heron of Alexandria; Diophantus; Pappus.

Celsus, a layman, provides in On Medicine more information about the condition of medical science up to his own time (probably first century CE) than any other author. Books VII and Book VIII deal with surgery and present accounts of many operations, including amputation.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

Dio Chrysostomus (c. 40–c. 120 CE) was a rhetorician hostile to philosophers, whose Discourses (or Orations) reflect political or moral concerns. What survives of his works make him prominent in the revival of Greek literature in the late first and early second century CE.

Diodorus’ Library of History, written in the first century BCE, is the most extensively preserved history by an ancient Greek author. The work is in three parts: mythical history to the Trojan War; history to Alexander’s death (323 BCE); history to 54 BCE. Books 1–5 and 11–20 survive complete, the rest in fragments.

The philosopher Philo, born about 20 BCE to a prominent Jewish family in Alexandria, was trained in Greek as well as Jewish learning. In attempting to reconcile biblical teachings with Greek philosophy he developed ideas that had wide influence on Christian and Jewish religious thought.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

In On Buildings the Byzantine historian Procopius (late fifth century to after 558 CE) describes the churches, public buildings, fortifications, and bridges Justinian erected throughout his empire, from the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople to city walls at Carthage. The work is richly informative about architecture of the sixth century CE.

The epic Dionysiaca by Nonnos of Panopolis in Egypt (fifth century CE) concerns Dionysus’ earthly career from birth at Thebes to reception on Olympus. In a poem full of mythology, astrology, and magic, Nonnos relates the god’s conquest of the East and also, sensually and explicitly, his amorous adventures.

In The Learned Banqueters (late-2nd century CE), Athenaeus describes a series of dinner parties at which the guests quote extensively from Greek literature. The work provides quotations from works now lost, and preserves information about wide range of information about Greek culture.

Demosthenes (384–322 BCE), orator at Athens, was a pleader in law courts who later became also a champion of Athenian greatness and Greek resistance to Philip of Macedon. His steadfastness, pungent argument, and severe control of language gained him early reputation as the best of Greek orators, and his works provide vivid pictures of contemporary life.

The main aim of Dionysius of Halicarnassus’ Roman Antiquities, which began to appear in 7 BCE, was to reconcile Greeks to Roman rule. Of the twenty books (from the earliest times to 264 BCE) we have the first nine complete; most of 10 and 11; extracts; and an epitome of the whole.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

Eight works or parts of works were ascribed to Manetho, a third century BCE Egyptian, all on history and religion and all apparently in Greek. They survive only as quoted by other writers and include the spurious Book of Sôthis. The Kings of Thebes (in Egypt) and the Old Chronicle are doubtful.

Demosthenes (384–322 BCE), orator at Athens, was a pleader in law courts who later became also a champion of Athenian greatness and Greek resistance to Philip of Macedon. His steadfastness, pungent argument, and severe control of language gained him early reputation as the best of Greek orators, and his works provide vivid pictures of contemporary life.

Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) produced in his Natural History a vast compendium of Roman knowledge. Topics included are the mathematics and metrology of the universe; world geography and ethnography; human anthropology and physiology; zoology; botany, agriculture, and horticulture; medicine; minerals, fine arts, and gemstones.

Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) produced in his Natural History a vast compendium of Roman knowledge. Topics included are the mathematics and metrology of the universe; world geography and ethnography; human anthropology and physiology; zoology; botany, agriculture, and horticulture; medicine; minerals, fine arts, and gemstones.

The epic Dionysiaca by Nonnos of Panopolis in Egypt (fifth century CE) concerns Dionysus’ earthly career from birth at Thebes to reception on Olympus. In a poem full of mythology, astrology, and magic, Nonnos relates the god’s conquest of the East and also, sensually and explicitly, his amorous adventures.

The only extant work by Livy (64 or 59 BCE –12 or 17 CE) is part of his history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BCE. Of its 142 books, 1–10, 21–45 (except parts of 41 and 43–45), fragments, and short summaries remain. Livy’s history is a source for the De Prodigiis of Julius Obsequens (fourth century CE).

The epic Dionysiaca by Nonnos of Panopolis in Egypt (fifth century CE) concerns Dionysus’ earthly career from birth at Thebes to reception on Olympus. In a poem full of mythology, astrology, and magic, Nonnos relates the god’s conquest of the East and also, sensually and explicitly, his amorous adventures.

The main aim of Dionysius of Halicarnassus’ Roman Antiquities, which began to appear in 7 BCE, was to reconcile Greeks to Roman rule. Of the twenty books (from the earliest times to 264 BCE) we have the first nine complete; most of 10 and 11; extracts; and an epitome of the whole.

Dio Chrysostomus (c. 40–c. 120 CE) was a rhetorician hostile to philosophers, whose Discourses (or Orations) reflect political or moral concerns. What survives of his works make him prominent in the revival of Greek literature in the late first and early second century CE.

Extant early Latin writings from the seventh or sixth to the first century BCE include epic, drama, satire, translation and paraphrase, hymns, stage history and practice, and other works by Ennius, Caecilius, Livius Andronicus, Naevius, Pacuvius, Accius, Lucilius, and other anonymous authors; the Twelve Tables of Roman law; archaic inscriptions.

Fragments of ancient literature, from the seventh to the third century BCE, found on papyri in Egypt include examples of tragedy; satyr drama; Old, Middle, and New Comedy; mime; lyric, elegiac, iambic, and hexametric poetry.

Columella (first century CE) included Cato and Varro among many sources for On Agriculture, but his personal experience was paramount. Written in prose except for the hexameters on horticulture of Book 10, the work is richly informative about country life in first century CE Italy.

Greek mathematics from the sixth century BCE to the fourth century CE is represented by the work of, e.g., Pythagoras; Proclus; Thales; Democritus; Hippocrates of Chios; Theaetetus; Plato; Eudoxus of Cnidus; Aristotle; Euclid; Eratosthenes; Apollonius; Ptolemy; Heron of Alexandria; Diophantus; Pappus.

The philosopher Philo, born about 20 BCE to a prominent Jewish family in Alexandria, was trained in Greek as well as Jewish learning. In attempting to reconcile biblical teachings with Greek philosophy he developed ideas that had wide influence on Christian and Jewish religious thought.

The main aim of Dionysius of Halicarnassus’ Roman Antiquities, which began to appear in 7 BCE, was to reconcile Greeks to Roman rule. Of the twenty books (from the earliest times to 264 BCE) we have the first nine complete; most of 10 and 11; extracts; and an epitome of the whole.

The major works of Josephus (c. 37–after 97 CE) are History of the Jewish War, from 170 BCE to his own time, and Jewish Antiquities, from creation to 66 CE. Also by him are an autobiographical Life and a treatise Against Apion.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

The only extant work by Livy (64 or 59 BCE –12 or 17 CE) is part of his history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BCE. Of its 142 books, 1–10, 21–45 (except parts of 41 and 43–45), fragments, and short summaries remain. Livy’s history is a source for the De Prodigiis of Julius Obsequens (fourth century CE).

Quintus Curtius wrote a history of Alexander the Great in the first or second century CE. The first two of ten books have not survived and material is missing from books 5, 6, and 10. Curtius narrates exciting experiences, develops his hero’s character, moralizes, and provides one of the five extant works that are evidence for Alexander’s career.

Quintus Curtius wrote a history of Alexander the Great in the first or second century CE. The first two of ten books have not survived and material is missing from books 5, 6, and 10. Curtius narrates exciting experiences, develops his hero’s character, moralizes, and provides one of the five extant works that are evidence for Alexander’s career.

Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) produced in his Natural History a vast compendium of Roman knowledge. Topics included are the mathematics and metrology of the universe; world geography and ethnography; human anthropology and physiology; zoology; botany, agriculture, and horticulture; medicine; minerals, fine arts, and gemstones.

Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) produced in his Natural History a vast compendium of Roman knowledge. Topics included are the mathematics and metrology of the universe; world geography and ethnography; human anthropology and physiology; zoology; botany, agriculture, and horticulture; medicine; minerals, fine arts, and gemstones.

The main aim of Dionysius of Halicarnassus’ Roman Antiquities, which began to appear in 7 BCE, was to reconcile Greeks to Roman rule. Of the twenty books (from the earliest times to 264 BCE) we have the first nine complete; most of 10 and 11; extracts; and an epitome of the whole.

The importance of Isocrates (436–338 BCE) for the study of Greek civilization of the fourth century BCE is indisputable. Twenty-one discourses by Isocrates survive; these include political essays, treatises on education and on ethics, and speeches for legal cases. Nine letters, more on public than private matters, are also extant.

Demosthenes (384–322 BCE), orator at Athens, was a pleader in law courts who later became also a champion of Athenian greatness and Greek resistance to Philip of Macedon. His steadfastness, pungent argument, and severe control of language gained him early reputation as the best of Greek orators, and his works provide vivid pictures of contemporary life.

Diodorus’ Library of History, written in the first century BCE, is the most extensively preserved history by an ancient Greek author. The work is in three parts: mythical history to the Trojan War; history to Alexander’s death (323 BCE); history to 54 BCE. Books 1–5 and 11–20 survive complete, the rest in fragments.

Dio Chrysostomus (c. 40–c. 120 CE) was a rhetorician hostile to philosophers, whose Discourses (or Orations) reflect political or moral concerns. What survives of his works make him prominent in the revival of Greek literature in the late first and early second century CE.

Diodorus’ Library of History, written in the first century BCE, is the most extensively preserved history by an ancient Greek author. The work is in three parts: mythical history to the Trojan War; history to Alexander’s death (323 BCE); history to 54 BCE. Books 1–5 and 11–20 survive complete, the rest in fragments.

The main aim of Dionysius of Halicarnassus’ Roman Antiquities, which began to appear in 7 BCE, was to reconcile Greeks to Roman rule. Of the twenty books (from the earliest times to 264 BCE) we have the first nine complete; most of 10 and 11; extracts; and an epitome of the whole.

The philosopher Philo, born about 20 BCE to a prominent Jewish family in Alexandria, was trained in Greek as well as Jewish learning. In attempting to reconcile biblical teachings with Greek philosophy he developed ideas that had wide influence on Christian and Jewish religious thought.

The philosopher Philo, born about 20 BCE to a prominent Jewish family in Alexandria, was trained in Greek as well as Jewish learning. In attempting to reconcile biblical teachings with Greek philosophy he developed ideas that had wide influence on Christian and Jewish religious thought.

The only extant work by Livy (64 or 59 BCE –12 or 17 CE) is part of his history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BCE. Of its 142 books, 1–10, 21–45 (except parts of 41 and 43–45), fragments, and short summaries remain. Livy’s history is a source for the De Prodigiis of Julius Obsequens (fourth century CE).

The three surviving works by Sextus Empiricus (c. 160–210 CE) are Outlines of Pyrrhonism, Against the Dogmatists, and Against the Professors. Their value as a source for the history of thought is especially that they represent development and formulation of former sceptic doctrines.

The fictitious, highly literary Letters of Alciphron (second century CE) are mostly to invented characters. Letters of Farmers by Aelian (c. 170–235 CE) portray the country ways of their imagined writers. The Erotic Epistles of Philostratus (perhaps born c. 170 CE) resemble and may have been influenced by those of Alciphron.

Diodorus’ Library of History, written in the first century BCE, is the most extensively preserved history by an ancient Greek author. The work is in three parts: mythical history to the Trojan War; history to Alexander’s death (323 BCE); history to 54 BCE. Books 1–5 and 11–20 survive complete, the rest in fragments.

Dio Chrysostomus (c. 40–c. 120 CE) was a rhetorician hostile to philosophers, whose Discourses (or Orations) reflect political or moral concerns. What survives of his works make him prominent in the revival of Greek literature in the late first and early second century CE.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

Prudentius (born 348 CE) used allegory and classical Latin verse forms in the service of Christianity. His works include the Psychomachia, an allegorical description of the struggle between (Christian) virtues and (pagan) vices; lyric poetry; and—a valuable source on Christian iconography—poetic inscriptions for biblical scenes on the walls of a church.

The main aim of Dionysius of Halicarnassus’ Roman Antiquities, which began to appear in 7 BCE, was to reconcile Greeks to Roman rule. Of the twenty books (from the earliest times to 264 BCE) we have the first nine complete; most of 10 and 11; extracts; and an epitome of the whole.

Diodorus’ Library of History, written in the first century BCE, is the most extensively preserved history by an ancient Greek author. The work is in three parts: mythical history to the Trojan War; history to Alexander’s death (323 BCE); history to 54 BCE. Books 1–5 and 11–20 survive complete, the rest in fragments.

Diodorus’ Library of History, written in the first century BCE, is the most extensively preserved history by an ancient Greek author. The work is in three parts: mythical history to the Trojan War; history to Alexander’s death (323 BCE); history to 54 BCE. Books 1–5 and 11–20 survive complete, the rest in fragments.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) produced in his Natural History a vast compendium of Roman knowledge. Topics included are the mathematics and metrology of the universe; world geography and ethnography; human anthropology and physiology; zoology; botany, agriculture, and horticulture; medicine; minerals, fine arts, and gemstones.

Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) produced in his Natural History a vast compendium of Roman knowledge. Topics included are the mathematics and metrology of the universe; world geography and ethnography; human anthropology and physiology; zoology; botany, agriculture, and horticulture; medicine; minerals, fine arts, and gemstones.

Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) produced in his Natural History a vast compendium of Roman knowledge. Topics included are the mathematics and metrology of the universe; world geography and ethnography; human anthropology and physiology; zoology; botany, agriculture, and horticulture; medicine; minerals, fine arts, and gemstones.

Fourth century BCE orators were involved in Athenian resistance to Macedon. Lycurgus was with Demosthenes in the anti-Macedonian faction. Hyperides was also hostile to Philip and led Athenian patriots after 325 BCE. But Dinarchus favored an oligarchy under Macedonian control and Demades supported the Macedonian cause too.

The only extant work by Livy (64 or 59 BCE –12 or 17 CE) is part of his history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BCE. Of its 142 books, 1–10, 21–45 (except parts of 41 and 43–45), fragments, and short summaries remain. Livy’s history is a source for the De Prodigiis of Julius Obsequens (fourth century CE).

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

Prudentius (born 348 CE) used allegory and classical Latin verse forms in the service of Christianity. His works include the Psychomachia, an allegorical description of the struggle between (Christian) virtues and (pagan) vices; lyric poetry; and—a valuable source on Christian iconography—poetic inscriptions for biblical scenes on the walls of a church.

Diodorus’ Library of History, written in the first century BCE, is the most extensively preserved history by an ancient Greek author. The work is in three parts: mythical history to the Trojan War; history to Alexander’s death (323 BCE); history to 54 BCE. Books 1–5 and 11–20 survive complete, the rest in fragments.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

The philosopher Philo, born about 20 BCE to a prominent Jewish family in Alexandria, was trained in Greek as well as Jewish learning. In attempting to reconcile biblical teachings with Greek philosophy he developed ideas that had wide influence on Christian and Jewish religious thought.

Aulus Hirtius, friend of and military subordinate to Caesar (100–44 BCE), may have written the The Alexandrian War. The African War and The Spanish War are detailed accounts clearly by officers who had shared in the campaigns. All three works provide important information on Caesar’s career.

The Rhetorica ad Herrenium was traditionally attributed to Cicero (106–43 BCE), and reflects, as does Cicero’s De Inventione, Hellenistic rhetorical teaching. But most recent editors attribute it to an unknown author.

The only extant work by Livy (64 or 59 BCE –12 or 17 CE) is part of his history of Rome from the foundation of the city to 9 BCE. Of its 142 books, 1–10, 21–45 (except parts of 41 and 43–45), fragments, and short summaries remain. Livy’s history is a source for the De Prodigiis of Julius Obsequens (fourth century CE).

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

Columella (first century CE) included Cato and Varro among many sources for On Agriculture, but his personal experience was paramount. Written in prose except for the hexameters on horticulture of Book 10, the work is richly informative about country life in first century CE Italy.

Columella (first century CE) included Cato and Varro among many sources for On Agriculture, but his personal experience was paramount. Written in prose except for the hexameters on horticulture of Book 10, the work is richly informative about country life in first century CE Italy.

Diodorus’ Library of History, written in the first century BCE, is the most extensively preserved history by an ancient Greek author. The work is in three parts: mythical history to the Trojan War; history to Alexander’s death (323 BCE); history to 54 BCE. Books 1–5 and 11–20 survive complete, the rest in fragments.

The major works of Josephus (c. 37–after 97 CE) are History of the Jewish War, from 170 BCE to his own time, and Jewish Antiquities, from creation to 66 CE. Also by him are an autobiographical Life and a treatise Against Apion.

On the City of God by Augustine (354–430 CE) unfolds God’s action in the progress of the world’s history, and propounds the superiority of Christian beliefs over pagan in adversity.

On the City of God by Augustine (354–430 CE) unfolds God’s action in the progress of the world’s history, and propounds the superiority of Christian beliefs over pagan in adversity.

On the City of God by Augustine (354–430 CE) unfolds God’s action in the progress of the world’s history, and propounds the superiority of Christian beliefs over pagan in adversity.

On the City of God by Augustine (354–430 CE) unfolds God’s action in the progress of the world’s history, and propounds the superiority of Christian beliefs over pagan in adversity.

On the City of God by Augustine (354–430 CE) unfolds God’s action in the progress of the world’s history, and propounds the superiority of Christian beliefs over pagan in adversity.

On the City of God by Augustine (354–430 CE) unfolds God’s action in the progress of the world’s history, and propounds the superiority of Christian beliefs over pagan in adversity.

On the City of God by Augustine (354–430 CE) unfolds God’s action in the progress of the world’s history, and propounds the superiority of Christian beliefs over pagan in adversity.

Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) produced in his Natural History a vast compendium of Roman knowledge. Topics included are the mathematics and metrology of the universe; world geography and ethnography; human anthropology and physiology; zoology; botany, agriculture, and horticulture; medicine; minerals, fine arts, and gemstones.

Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) produced in his Natural History a vast compendium of Roman knowledge. Topics included are the mathematics and metrology of the universe; world geography and ethnography; human anthropology and physiology; zoology; botany, agriculture, and horticulture; medicine; minerals, fine arts, and gemstones.

Extant works by Sidonius (born c. 430 CE) are three long panegyrics in verse, poems addressed to or concerned with friends, and nine books of letters.

Fragments by Callimachus (third century BCE) include those from the Aetia, Greek aetiological stories; a book of Iambi; and the epic poem Hecale. Hero and Leander by Musaeus (fifth or sixth century CE) is a short epic poem.

Diodorus’ Library of History, written in the first century BCE, is the most extensively preserved history by an ancient Greek author. The work is in three parts: mythical history to the Trojan War; history to Alexander’s death (323 BCE); history to 54 BCE. Books 1–5 and 11–20 survive complete, the rest in fragments.

Diodorus’ Library of History, written in the first century BCE, is the most extensively preserved history by an ancient Greek author. The work is in three parts: mythical history to the Trojan War; history to Alexander’s death (323 BCE); history to 54 BCE. Books 1–5 and 11–20 survive complete, the rest in fragments.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

Lucian (c. 120–190 CE), apprentice sculptor then travelling rhetorician, settled in Athens and developed an original brand of satire. Notable for the Attic purity and elegance of his Greek and for literary versatility, he is famous chiefly for the lively, cynical wit of the dialogues in which he satirizes human folly, superstition, and hypocrisy.

Lucian (c. 120–190 CE), apprentice sculptor then travelling rhetorician, settled in Athens and developed an original brand of satire. Notable for the Attic purity and elegance of his Greek and for literary versatility, he is famous chiefly for the lively, cynical wit of the dialogues in which he satirizes human folly, superstition, and hypocrisy.

Lucian (c. 120–190 CE), apprentice sculptor then travelling rhetorician, settled in Athens and developed an original brand of satire. Notable for the Attic purity and elegance of his Greek and for literary versatility, he is famous chiefly for the lively, cynical wit of the dialogues in which he satirizes human folly, superstition, and hypocrisy.

The major works of Josephus (c. 37–after 97 CE) are History of the Jewish War, from 170 BCE to his own time, and Jewish Antiquities, from creation to 66 CE. Also by him are an autobiographical Life and a treatise Against Apion.

Works such as those of the mime-writer Publilius Syrus, who flourished c. 45 BCE, and Rutilius Namatianus, who gave a graphic account of his voyage from Rome to Gaul in 416 CE, represent the wide variety of theme that lends interest to Latin poetry produced during a period of four and a half centuries.

In Tetrabiblos, a core text in the history of astrology, the preeminent ancient astronomer Ptolemy (c. 100–178 CE) treats the practical use of astronomical knowledge: making predictions about individuals’ lives and the outcome of human affairs.

Babrius’s humorous and pointed fables in Greek verse probably date from the first century CE. From the same period come the lively fables in Latin verse written by Phaedrus, which satirize social and political life in Augustan Rome.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

Nearly all the works Aristotle (384–322 BCE) prepared for publication are lost; the priceless ones extant are lecture materials, notes, and memoranda (some are spurious). They can be categorized as: practical; logical; physical; metaphysical; on art; other; or fragments.

Plotinus (204/5–270 CE) was the first and greatest of Neoplatonic philosophers. His writings were edited by his disciple Porphyry, who published them sometime between 301 and 305 CE in six sets of nine treatises each (Enneads), with a biography of his master in which he also explains his editorial principles.

Plotinus (204/5–270 CE) was the first and greatest of Neoplatonic philosophers. His writings were edited by his disciple Porphyry, who published them sometime between 301 and 305 CE in six sets of nine treatises each (Enneads), with a biography of his master in which he also explains his editorial principles.

Plotinus (204/5–270 CE) was the first and greatest of Neoplatonic philosophers. His writings were edited by his disciple Porphyry, who published them sometime between 301 and 305 CE in six sets of nine treatises each (Enneads), with a biography of his master in which he also explains his editorial principles.

Plotinus (204/5–270 CE) was the first and greatest of Neoplatonic philosophers. His writings were edited by his disciple Porphyry, who published them sometime between 301 and 305 CE in six sets of nine treatises each (Enneads), with a biography of his master in which he also explains his editorial principles.

Plotinus (204/5–270 CE) was the first and greatest of Neoplatonic philosophers. His writings were edited by his disciple Porphyry, who published them sometime between 301 and 305 CE in six sets of nine treatises each (Enneads), with a biography of his master in which he also explains his editorial principles.

Plotinus (204/5–270 CE) was the first and greatest of Neoplatonic philosophers. His writings were edited by his disciple Porphyry, who published them sometime between 301 and 305 CE in six sets of nine treatises each (Enneads), with a biography of his master in which he also explains his editorial principles.

In On the Characteristics of Animals, Aelian (c. 170–after 230 CE) collects facts and fables about the animal kingdom and invites the reader to ponder contrasts between human and animal behavior.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.

In On the Characteristics of Animals, Aelian (c. 170–after 230 CE) collects facts and fables about the animal kingdom and invites the reader to ponder contrasts between human and animal behavior.

In On the Characteristics of Animals, Aelian (c. 170–after 230 CE) collects facts and fables about the animal kingdom and invites the reader to ponder contrasts between human and animal behavior.

Seneca (c. 4–65 CE) devotes most of Naturales Quaestiones to celestial phenomena. In Book 1 he discusses fires in the atmosphere; in 2, lightning and thunder; in 3, bodies of water. Seneca’s method is to survey the theories of major authorities on the subject at hand, so his work is a guide to Greek and Roman thinking about the heavens.

Libanius (314–393 CE), who was one of the last great publicists and teachers of Greek paganism, has much to tell us about the tumultuous world of the fourth century CE. His works include Orations, the first of which is an autobiography, and Letters.

Libanius (314–393 CE), who was one of the last great publicists and teachers of Greek paganism, has much to tell us about the tumultuous world of the fourth century CE. His works include Orations, the first of which is an autobiography, and Letters.

The Metamorphoses (The Golden Ass) of Apuleius (born c. 125 CE) is a romance combining realism and magic. Lucius wants the sensations of a bird, but by pharmaceutical accident becomes an ass. The bulk of the novel recounts his adventures as an animal, but Lucius also recounts many stories he overhears, including that of Cupid and Psyche.

The History of Herodian (born c. 178–179 CE) is one of the few literary historical sources for the period of the Roman empire from the death of the emperor Marcus Aurelius (180 CE) to the accession of Gordian III (238), a period in which we can see turbulence and the onset of revolution.

The History of Herodian (born c. 178–179 CE) is one of the few literary historical sources for the period of the Roman empire from the death of the emperor Marcus Aurelius (180 CE) to the accession of Gordian III (238), a period in which we can see turbulence and the onset of revolution.

The major works of Josephus (c. 37–after 97 CE) are History of the Jewish War, from 170 BCE to his own time, and Jewish Antiquities, from creation to 66 CE. Also by him are an autobiographical Life and a treatise Against Apion.

Seneca (c. 4–65 CE) devotes most of Naturales Quaestiones to celestial phenomena. In Book 1 he discusses fires in the atmosphere; in 2, lightning and thunder; in 3, bodies of water. Seneca’s method is to survey the theories of major authorities on the subject at hand, so his work is a guide to Greek and Roman thinking about the heavens.

In his Life of Apollonius, Philostratus (second–third century CE) portrays a first-century CE teacher, religious reformer, and perceived rival to Jesus. Apollonius’s letters, ancient reports about him, and a letter by Eusebius (fourth century CE) that is now central to the history of Philostratus’s work add to the portrait.

Menander (?344/3–292/1 BCE), the dominant figure in New Comedy, wrote over 100 plays, of which one complete play, substantial portions of six others, and smaller but interesting fragments have been recovered. The complete play, Dyskolos (The Peevish Fellow), won first prize in Athens in 317 BCE.

Menander (?344/3–292/1 BCE), the dominant figure in New Comedy, wrote over 100 plays, of which one complete play, substantial portions of six others, and smaller but interesting fragments have been recovered. The complete play, Dyskolos (The Peevish Fellow), won first prize in Athens in 317 BCE.

Bacchylides wrote masterful choral poetry of many types. Other fifth-century BCE lyricists included Myrtis, Telesilla of Argos, Timocreon of Rhodes, Charixena, Diagoras of Melos, Ion of Chios, Praxilla of Sicyon. More of Boeotian Corinna’s (third-century BCE?) poetry survives than that of any other Greek woman poet except Sappho.

The correspondence of Cicero (106–43 BCE) with his brother, Quintus, and with Brutus is a window onto their world. Two invective speeches linked with Cicero are probably anonymous exercises. The Letter to Octavian likely dates from the third or fourth century CE. The Handbook of Electioneering was said to be written by Quintus to Cicero.

Seneca the Elder (?55 BCE–40 CE) collected ten books devoted to controversiae (some only preserved in excerpt) and at least one (surviving) of suasoriae. Extracts from famous declaimers of Seneca’s illuminate influences on the styles of most pagan (and many Christian) writers of the Empire.

Seneca the Elder (?55 BCE–40 CE) collected ten books devoted to controversiae (some only preserved in excerpt) and at least one (surviving) of suasoriae. Extracts from famous declaimers of Seneca’s illuminate influences on the styles of most pagan (and many Christian) writers of the Empire.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, born c. 60 BCE, aimed in his critical essays to reassert the primacy of Greek as the literary language of the Mediterranean world. They constitute an important development from the somewhat mechanical techniques of rhetorical handbooks to more sensitive criticism of individual authors.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, born c. 60 BCE, aimed in his critical essays to reassert the primacy of Greek as the literary language of the Mediterranean world. They constitute an important development from the somewhat mechanical techniques of rhetorical handbooks to more sensitive criticism of individual authors.

Cornelius Nepos (c. 99–c. 24 BCE) is the earliest biographer in Latin whose work we have. Extant are parts of his De Viris Illustribus, including biographies of mostly Greek military commanders and of two Latin historians, Cato and Atticus.

Plotinus (204/5–270 CE) was the first and greatest of Neoplatonic philosophers. His writings were edited by his disciple Porphyry, who published them sometime between 301 and 305 CE in six sets of nine treatises each (Enneads), with a biography of his master in which he also explains his editorial principles.

In Astronomica (first century CE), the earliest extant treatise we have on astrology, Manilius provides an account of celestial phenomena and the signs of the Zodiac. He also gives witty character sketches of persons born under particular constellations.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

Enquiry into Plants and De Causis Plantarum by Theophrastus (c. 370–c. 285 BCE) are a counterpart to Aristotle’s zoological work and the most important botanical work of antiquity now extant. In the latter, Theophrastus turns to plant physiology.

Of the roughly seventy treatises in the Hippocratic Collection, many are not by Hippocrates (said to have been born in Cos in or before 460 BCE), but they are essential sources of information about the practice of medicine in antiquity and about Greek theories concerning the human body, and he was undeniably the “Father of Medicine.”

Of the roughly seventy treatises in the Hippocratic Collection, many are not by Hippocrates (said to have been born in Cos in or before 460 BCE), but they are essential sources of information about the practice of medicine in antiquity and about Greek theories concerning the human body, and he was undeniably the “Father of Medicine.”

Enquiry into Plants and De Causis Plantarum by Theophrastus (c. 370–c. 285 BCE) are a counterpart to Aristotle’s zoological work and the most important botanical work of antiquity now extant. In the latter, Theophrastus turns to plant physiology.

Enquiry into Plants and De Causis Plantarum by Theophrastus (c. 370–c. 285 BCE) are a counterpart to Aristotle’s zoological work and the most important botanical work of antiquity now extant. In the latter, Theophrastus turns to plant physiology.

The most important poets writing in Greek in the sixth century BCE came from Sicily and southern Italy. They included Stesichorus, Ibycus, and Simonides, as well as Arion, Lasus, and Pratinas.

Of the roughly seventy treatises in the Hippocratic Collection, many are not by Hippocrates (said to have been born in Cos in or before 460 BCE), but they are essential sources of information about the practice of medicine in antiquity and about Greek theories concerning the human body, and he was undeniably the “Father of Medicine.”

Libanius (314–393 CE), who was one of the last great publicists and teachers of Greek paganism, has much to tell us about the tumultuous world of the fourth century CE. His works include Orations, the first of which is an autobiography, and Letters.

Libanius (314–393 CE), who was one of the last great publicists and teachers of Greek paganism, has much to tell us about the tumultuous world of the fourth century CE. His works include Orations, the first of which is an autobiography, and Letters.

In his epigrams, Martial (c. 40–c. 103 CE) is a keen, sharp-tongued observer of Roman scenes and events, including the new Colosseum, country life, a debauchee’s banquet, and the eruption of Vesuvius. His poems are sometimes obscene, in the tradition of the genre, sometimes affectionate or amusing, and always pointed.

Chariton’s Callirhoe, subtitled “Love Story in Syracuse,” is a fast-paced historical romance of the first century CE and the oldest extant novel.

Of the roughly seventy treatises in the Hippocratic Collection, many are not by Hippocrates (said to have been born in Cos in or before 460 BCE), but they are essential sources of information about the practice of medicine in antiquity and about Greek theories concerning the human body, and he was undeniably the “Father of Medicine.”

Sophocles (497/6–406 BCE), considered one of the world’s greatest poets, forged tragedy from the heroic excess of myth and legend. Seven complete plays are extant, including Oedipus Tyrannus, Ajax, Antigone, and Philoctetes. Among many fragments that also survive is a substantial portion of the satyr drama The Searchers.

Euripides (c. 485–406 BCE) has been prized in every age for his emotional and intellectual drama. Eighteen of his ninety or so plays survive complete, including Medea, Hippolytus, and Bacchae, one of the great masterpieces of the tragic genre. Fragments of his lost plays also survive.

Pindar (c. 518–438 BCE), highly esteemed as lyric poet by the ancients, commemorates in complex verse the achievements of athletes and powerful rulers at the four great Panhellenic festivals—the Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games—against a backdrop of divine favor, human failure, heroic legend, and aristocratic Greek ethos.

Aelian’s Historical Miscellany (Varia Historia) is a pleasurable example of light reading for Romans of the early third century. Offering engaging anecdotes about historical figures, retellings of legendary events, and enjoyable descriptive pieces, Aelian’s collection of nuggets and narratives appealed to a wide reading public.

The major works of Josephus (c. 37–after 97 CE) are History of the Jewish War, from 170 BCE to his own time, and Jewish Antiquities, from creation to 66 CE. Also by him are an autobiographical Life and a treatise Against Apion.

Aristophanes (c. 450–c. 386 BCE) has been admired since antiquity for his wit, fantasy, language, and satire. Socrates’s “Thinkery” is at the center of Clouds, which spoofs untraditional techniques for educating young men. Wasps satirizes Athenian enthusiasm for jury service. Peace is a rollicking attack on war-makers.

The major works of Josephus (c. 37–after 97 CE) are History of the Jewish War, from 170 BCE to his own time, and Jewish Antiquities, from creation to 66 CE. Also by him are an autobiographical Life and a treatise Against Apion.

The major works of Josephus (c. 37–after 97 CE) are History of the Jewish War, from 170 BCE to his own time, and Jewish Antiquities, from creation to 66 CE. Also by him are an autobiographical Life and a treatise Against Apion.

In letters to his friend Atticus, Cicero (106–43 BCE) reveals himself as to no other of his correspondents except, perhaps, his brother, and vividly depicts a momentous period in Roman history, marked by the rise of Julius Caesar and the downfall of the Republic.

Valerius Maximus compiled his handbook of notable deeds and sayings in the reign of Tiberius (14–37 CE). Valerius’s professedly practical work contains a clear moral element and is informative about first-century CE Roman attitudes toward religion and morality.

Valerius Maximus compiled his handbook of notable deeds and sayings in the reign of Tiberius (14–37 CE). Valerius’s professedly practical work contains a clear moral element and is informative about first-century CE Roman attitudes toward religion and morality.

Quintilian, born in Spain about 35 CE, became a renowned and successful teacher of rhetoric in Rome. In The Orator’s Education (Institutio Oratoria), a comprehensive training program in twelve books, he draws on his own rich experience. It provides not only insights on oratory, but also a picture of Roman education and social attitudes.

Euripides (c. 485–406 BCE) has been prized in every age for his emotional and intellectual drama. Eighteen of his ninety or so plays survive complete, including Medea, Hippolytus, and Bacchae, one of the great masterpieces of the tragic genre. Fragments of his lost plays also survive.

The earliest poems extant under the title Homeric Hymns date from the seventh century BCE. Comic poems in the Homeric Apocrypha include the Battle of Frogs and Mice (probably not earlier than first century CE). Lives of Homer include a version of The Contest of Homer and Hesiod that dates from the second century BCE.

Heroic epic of the eighth to the fifth century BCE includes poems about Hercules and Theseus, as well as the Theban Cycle and the Trojan Cycle. Genealogical epic of that archaic era includes poems that create prehistories for Corinth and Samos. These works are an important source of mythological record.

Greek literary education and Roman political reality are evident in the poetry of Statius (c. 50–96 CE). His Silvae are thirty-two occasional poems. His masterpiece, the epic Thebaid, recounts the struggle for kingship between the two sons of Oedipus. The extant portion of his Achilleid begins an account of Achilles’s life and renews epic.

Plutarch (c. 45–120 CE) wrote on many subjects. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia (Moral Essays). They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

The Lesser Declamations perhaps date from the second century CE and are perhaps derived from Quintilian. The collection originally consisted of 388 sample cases for legal training. 145 survive. Comments and suggestions the instructor adds to his model speeches for fictitious court cases offer insight into Roman law and education.

The Lesser Declamations perhaps date from the second century CE and are perhaps derived from Quintilian. The collection originally consisted of 388 sample cases for legal training. 145 survive. Comments and suggestions the instructor adds to his model speeches for fictitious court cases offer insight into Roman law and education.

Aristophanes (c. 450–c. 386 BCE) has been admired since antiquity for his wit, fantasy, language, and satire. Over forty of his plays were read in antiquity, from which nearly a thousand fragments survive. These provide a fuller picture of the poet’s comic vitality and a wealth of information and insights about his world.

Though attributed to Hesiod (eighth or seventh century BCE) in antiquity, the Catalogue of Women, a presentation of legendary Greek heroes and episodes according to maternal genealogy; The Shield, a counterpoint to the Iliadic shield of Achilles; and certain poems that survive as fragments were likely not composed by Hesiod himself.

Euripides (c. 485–406 BCE) has been prized in every age for his emotional and intellectual drama. Eighteen of his ninety or so plays survive complete, including Medea, Hippolytus, and Bacchae, one of the great masterpieces of the tragic genre. Fragments of his lost plays also survive.

Aeschylus (c. 525–456 BCE) is the dramatist who made Athenian tragedy one of the world’s great art forms. Seven of his eighty or so plays survive complete, including the Oresteia trilogy and the Persians, the only extant Greek historical drama. Fragments of his lost plays also survive.

Euripides (c. 485–406 BCE) has been prized in every age for his emotional and intellectual drama. Eighteen of his ninety or so plays survive complete, including Medea, Hippolytus, and Bacchae, one of the great masterpieces of the tragic genre. Fragments of his lost plays also survive.

We know more of Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE), lawyer, orator, politician and philosopher, than of any other Roman. Besides much else, his work conveys the turmoil of his time, and the part he played in a period that saw the rise and fall of Julius Caesar in a tottering republic.